Edict of Milan, or the role of Emperor Constantine the Great in the Christianization of the Roman Empire. Edict of Milan (Milan) Hagia Sophia in Constantinople
He issued the Edict of Milan, thanks to which Christianity ceased to be persecuted and subsequently acquired the status of the dominant faith of the Roman Empire. The Edict of Milan as a legal monument is an important milestone in the history of the development of the ideas of religious freedom and freedom of conscience: it emphasized the right of a person to profess the religion that he considers true for himself.
Persecution of Christians in the Roman Empire
Even during his earthly ministry, the Lord himself predicted to His disciples the coming persecutions, when they they will give it to the courts and in the synagogues they will beat" And " they will lead them to rulers and kings for me, for a witness before them and to the Gentiles and” (Matt. 10:17-18), and His followers will reproduce the very image of His Sufferings (“ The cup that I drink you will drink, and with the baptism with which I am baptized you will be baptized."- Mk. 10:39; Matt. 20:23; cf.: Mk. 14:24 and Matt. 26:28).
Since the mid 30s. I century, a list of Christian martyrs opens: around the year 35, a crowd of "zealots for the law" was stoned to death the deacon the first martyr Stefan(Acts 6:8-15; Acts 7:1-60). During the short reign of the Jewish king Herod Agrippa (40-44) was Apostle James Zebedee killed, brother of the Apostle John the Theologian; another disciple of Christ, the apostle Peter, was arrested and miraculously escaped execution (Acts 12:1-3). About 62 years old, was stoned leader of the Christian community in Jerusalem Apostle James, brother of the Lord according to the flesh.
During the first three centuries of its existence, the Church was practically outside the law and all the followers of Christ were potential martyrs. Under the conditions of the existence of the imperial cult, Christians were criminals both in relation to the Roman authorities and in relation to the Roman pagan religion. A Christian for a pagan was an "enemy" in the broadest sense of the word. Emperors, rulers and legislators saw Christians as conspirators and rebels, shaking all the foundations of state and public life.
The Roman government at first did not know Christians: it considered them a Jewish sect. In this capacity the Christians enjoyed tolerance and at the same time were as despised as the Jews.
Traditionally, the persecution of the first Christians is attributed to the reign of the emperors Nero, Domitian, Trajan, Marcus Aurelius, Septimius Severus, Maximinus Thracian, Decius, Valerian, Aurelian and Diocletian.
Heinrich Semiradsky. Lights of Christianity (Torches of Nero). 1882
The first real persecution of Christians was under the emperor Nero (64). He burned for his pleasure more than half of Rome, and accused the followers of Christ of arson - then the well-known inhuman extermination of Christians in Rome took place. They were crucified on crosses, given to be eaten by wild animals, sewn into bags, which were doused with resin and lit during folk festivals. Since then, Christians have felt a complete disgust for the Roman state. Nero in the eyes of Christians was the Antichrist, and the Roman Empire was the kingdom of demons. The chief apostles Peter and Paul became victims of persecution under Nero Peter was crucified upside down on the cross, and Paul was beheaded with a sword.
Heinrich Semiradsky. Christian Dircea in the circus of Nero. 1898
The second persecution is attributed to the emperor Domitian (81-96), during which there were several executions in Rome. In 96 he exiled the apostle John the Evangelist to the island of Patmos.
For the first time, the Roman state began to act against Christians as against a certain society, politically suspicious, under the emperor Trajans (98-117). In his time, Christians were not wanted, but if someone was accused by the judiciary of belonging to Christianity (this was to be proved by the refusal to sacrifice to the pagan gods), he was executed. Under Trajan they suffered, among many Christians, St. Clement, Ep. Roman, St. Ignatius the God-bearer, and Simeon, ep. Jerusalem, 120-year-old elder, son of Cleopas, successor in the chair of the Apostle James.
Forum of Trajan
But this persecution of Christians may seem insignificant compared to what Christians experienced in the last years of the reign. Marcus Aurelius (161-180). Marcus Aurelius despised Christians. If before him the persecution of the Church was actually illegal and provoked (Christians were persecuted as criminals, attributing, for example, the burning of Rome or the organization of secret communities), then in 177 he banned Christianity by law. He prescribed to look for Christians and decided to torture and torment them in order to turn them away from superstition and stubbornness; those who remained firm were subject to the death penalty. Christians were expelled from their homes, scourged, stoned, rolled on the ground, thrown into prisons, deprived of burial. Persecution simultaneously spread in various parts of the empire: in Gaul, Greece, in the East. Under him they were martyred in Rome St. justin Philosopher and his disciples. The persecutions were especially strong in Smyrna, where he was martyred St. Polycarp, Ep. Smirnsky, and in the Gallic cities of Lyon and Vienna. So, according to contemporaries, the bodies of martyrs lay in heaps along the streets of Lyon, which were then burned and the ashes thrown into the Rhone.
Successor of Marcus Aurelius Commodus (180-192), restored Trajan's more merciful legislation for Christians.
Septimius Severus (193-211) at first he was comparatively favorable to Christians, but in 202 he issued a decree forbidding conversion to Judaism or Christianity, and from that year severe persecutions broke out in various parts of the empire; they raged with particular force in Egypt and Africa. Under him, among others, was beheaded Leonidas, father of the famous Origen, in Lyon was martyred St. Irenaeus, the local bishop, the maiden Potamiena is thrown into boiling tar. In the Carthaginian region, the persecution was stronger than in other places. Here Thevia Perpetua, a young woman of noble birth, was thrown into a circus to be torn apart by wild beasts and finished off with a gladiator's sword.
In a short reign Maximina (235-238) there were severe persecutions of Christians in many provinces. He issued an edict on the persecution of Christians, especially the pastors of the Church. But persecution broke out only in Pontus and Cappadocia.
Under the successors of Maximinus, and especially under Philip the Arabian (244-249) Christians enjoyed such indulgence that the latter was even considered the most secret Christian.
With accession to the throne Decia (249-251) such a persecution broke out over the Christians, which, in systematicity and cruelty, surpassed all previous ones, even the persecution of Marcus Aurelius. Decius decided to restore the veneration of traditional shrines and revive the ancient cults. The greatest danger in this was represented by Christians, whose communities spread almost throughout the empire, and the church began to acquire a clear structure. Christians refused to make sacrifices and worship pagan gods. This should have been stopped immediately. Decius decided to completely exterminate the Christians. He issued a special decree, according to which every inhabitant of the empire had to publicly, in the presence of local authorities and a special commission, make a sacrifice and taste the sacrificial meat, and then receive a special document certifying this act. Those who refused to sacrifice were punished, which could even be the death penalty. The number of those executed was extremely high. The Church was adorned with many glorious martyrs; but there were many who fell away, especially because the long period of tranquility that had preceded had lulled some of the heroism of martyrdom.
At Valerian (253-260) persecution of Christians broke out again. By an edict of 257, he ordered the exile of clergy, and forbade Christians to convene meetings. In 258, a second edict followed, commanding the execution of clergy, beheading Christians of the upper classes with a sword, exiling noble women to imprisonment, depriving courtiers of their rights and estates, sending them to work on royal estates. A brutal massacre of Christians began. Among the victims were Roman Bishop Sixtus II with four deacons, St. Cyprian, Ep. Carthaginian who received the crown of martyrdom in front of his flock.
Son of Valerian Gallienus (260-268) stopped the persecution. By two edicts, he declared Christians free from persecution, returned to them confiscated property, prayer houses, cemeteries, etc. Thus, Christians acquired the right to property and enjoyed religious freedom for about 40 years - until the edict issued in 303 by Emperor Diocletian.
Among the most famous and revered martyrs of the time of the persecution of Emperor Diocletian: Markellinus, Pope of Rome, with a retinue, Markell, Pope of Rome, with a retinue, VMTs. Anastasia the Patterner, martyr. George the Victorious, martyrs Andrei Stratilat, John the Warrior, Cosmas and Damian the Unmercenaries, martyr. Panteleimon of Nicomedia.
Great persecution of Christians (303-313), which began under the emperor Diocletian and continued by his heirs, was the last and most severe persecution of Christians in the Roman Empire. The ferocity of the tormentors reached such an extent that the maimed were treated in order to torment again; sometimes they tortured from ten to a hundred people a day, without distinction of sex and age. The persecution spread in different areas of the empire, except for Gaul, Britain and Spain, where a supporter of Christians ruled. Constantius Chlorine(father of the future Emperor Constantine).
In 305, Diocletian gave up his reign in favor of his son-in-law. Gallery who fiercely hated Christians and demanded their complete extermination. Having become Augustus-emperor, he continued persecution with the same cruelty.
The number of martyrs who suffered under the emperor Galerius is extremely high. Of these, widely known vmch. Demetrius of Thessalonica, Cyrus and John the Unmercenaries, Vmts. Catherine of Alexandria, martyr. Theodore Tyron; numerous retinues of saints, such as the 156 Martyrs of Tyre, led by Bishops Pelius and Nil, and others. But shortly before his death, stricken with a serious and incurable illness, Galerius became convinced that no human power could destroy Christianity. That's why in 311 he published edict to end persecution and demanded prayers from Christians for the empire and the emperor. However, the tolerant edict of 311 did not yet provide Christians with security and freedom from persecution. And before, it often happened that, after a temporary lull, persecution flared up with renewed vigor.
Co-ruler of Galerius was Maximin Daza, an ardent enemy of Christians. Maximin, who ruled the Asian East (Egypt, Syria and Palestine), even after the death of Galerius continued to persecute Christians. Persecution in the East continued actively until 313, when, at the request of Constantine the Great, Maximinus Daza was forced to stop it.
Thus the history of the Church in the first three centuries became the history of martyrs.
Edict of Milan 313
The main culprit of a significant change in the life of the Church was the Constantine the Great who issued the Edict of Milan (313). Under him, the Church from being persecuted becomes not only tolerant (311), but also patronizing, privileged and equal with other religions (313), and under his sons, for example, under Constantius, and under subsequent emperors, for example, under Theodosius I and II, - even dominant.
Edict of Milan- the famous document that granted freedom of religion to Christians and returned to them all confiscated churches and church property. It was compiled by the emperors Constantine and Licinius in 313.
The Edict of Milan was an important step towards making Christianity the official religion of the empire. This edict was a continuation of the Edict of Nicomedia of 311 issued by Emperor Galerius. However, while the Edict of Nicomedia legalized Christianity and permitted the practice of worship on the condition that Christians pray for the well-being of the republic and the emperor, the Edict of Milan went even further.
In accordance with this edict, all religions were equalized in rights, thus, traditional Roman paganism lost its role as an official religion. The edict specifically singles out Christians and provides for the return to Christians and Christian communities of all property that was taken from them during the persecution. The edict also provides compensation from the treasury to those who have come into possession of property formerly owned by Christians and have been forced to return that property to the former owners.
The cessation of persecution and the recognition of freedom of worship was the initial stage of a fundamental change in the position of the Christian Church. The emperor, not accepting Christianity himself, tended, however, to Christianity and kept bishops among his closest people. Hence a number of benefits for representatives of Christian communities, members of the clergy, and even for temple buildings. He takes a number of measures in favor of the Church: makes generous donations of money and land to the Church, releases clerics from public duties so that they “serve God with all zeal, since this will bring much benefit to public affairs”, makes Sunday a day off, destroys painful and shameful execution on the cross, takes measures against the throwing away of born children, etc. And in 323, a decree appeared prohibiting forcing Christians to participate in pagan festivals. Thus, the Christian communities and their representatives occupied a completely new position in the state. Christianity became the preferred religion.
Under the personal leadership of Emperor Constantine in Constantinople (now Istanbul), a symbol of the affirmation of the Christian faith was built - Hagia Sophia of the Wisdom of God(from 324 to 337). This temple, subsequently rebuilt many times, has preserved to this day not only traces of architectural and religious grandeur, but also made glory to Emperor Constantine the Great, the first Christian emperor.
Hagia Sophia in Constantinople
What influenced this conversion of the pagan Roman emperor? To answer this question, we will have to go back a little, to the time of the reign of Emperor Diocletian.
"Sim win!"
In 285 Emperor Diocletian divided the empire into four parts for the convenience of managing the territory and approved a new system for managing the empire, according to which not one, but four rulers at once were in power ( tetrarchy), two of which were called Augusts(senior emperors), and the other two Caesars(younger). It was assumed that after 20 years of reign, the Augusti would renounce power in favor of the Caesars, who, in turn, also had to appoint their own successors. In the same year, Diocletian chose as his co-rulers Maximian Herculia, while giving him control of the western part of the empire, and leaving the east for himself. In 293, the Augusti chose their successors. One of them was the father of Constantine, Constantius Chlorine, who was then the prefect of Gaul, the place of another was taken by Galerius, who later became one of the most severe persecutors of Christians.
Roman Empire of the tetrarchy period
In 305, 20 years after the establishment of the tetrarchy, both Augusts (Diocletian and Maximian) resigned and Constantius Chlorus and Galerius became full rulers of the empire (the first in the west, and the second in the east). By this time, Constantius was already in very poor health and his co-ruler hoped for his speedy death. His son Constantine, was at that moment, practically as a hostage at Galerius, in the capital of the eastern empire of Nicomedia. Galerius did not want to let Constantine go to his father, as he was afraid that the soldiers would declare him Augustus (emperor). But Constantine miraculously managed to escape from captivity and get to the deathbed of his father, after whose death in 306 the army proclaimed Constantine their emperor. Willy-nilly, Galerius had to come to terms with this.
Tetrarchy period
In 306, an uprising took place in Rome, during which Maxentius, the son of the abdicated Maximian Herculius, came to power. Emperor Galerius tried to suppress the uprising, but could not do anything. In 308 he declared the August of the West Licinia. In the same year, Caesar Maximinus Daza declared himself Augustus, and Galerius had to assign the same title to Constantine (since before that they had both been Caesars). Thus, in 308, the empire was under the rule of 5 full-fledged rulers at once, each of which was not subordinate to the other.
Having fortified himself in Rome, the usurper Maxentius indulged in cruelty and debauchery. Vicious and idle, he crushed the people with excessive taxes, the proceeds of which he spent on magnificent festivities and grandiose constructions. However, he had a large army, consisting of a guard of Praetorians, as well as Moors and Italics. By 312, his power had degenerated into a brutal tyranny.
After the death in 311 of the main emperor-August Galerius, Maximinus Daza draws closer to Maxentius, and Constantine strikes up a friendship with Licinius. A clash between rulers becomes inevitable. Motives for him at first could only be political. Maxentius was already planning a campaign against Constantine, but in the spring of 312, Constantine was the first to move his troops against Maxentius in order to free the city of Rome from the tyrant and put an end to dual power. Conceived for political reasons, the campaign soon takes on a religious character. According to one calculation or another, Constantine could take only 25,000 troops on a campaign against Maxentius, approximately a fourth of his entire army. Meanwhile, Maxentius, who was sitting in Rome, had several times more troops - 170,000 infantry and 18,000 cavalry. For human reasons, the campaign conceived with such a balance of forces and the position of the commanders seemed like a terrible adventure, downright madness. Especially if we add to this the importance of Rome in the eyes of the pagans and the victories already won by Maxentius, for example, over Licinius.
This sight seized with horror, both himself and the whole army that followed him and continued to contemplate the miracle that had appeared.
gonfalon- the banner of Christ, the banner of the Church. The banners were introduced by St. Constantine the Great Equal to the Apostles, who replaced the eagle with a cross on the military banners, and the image of the emperor with the monogram of Christ. This military banner, originally known under the name labaruma, then became the property of the Church as a banner of her victory over the devil, her fierce enemy, and death.
The battle happened October 28, 312 on the Milvian bridge. When the troops of Constantine were already at the very city of Rome, the troops of Maxentius fled, and he himself, succumbing to fear, rushed to the destroyed bridge and drowned in the Tiber. The defeat of Maxentius, contrary to all strategic considerations, seemed incredible. Did the pagans hear the story of the miraculous signs of Constantine, but only they told about the miracle of the victory over Maxentius.
Battle of the Milvian Bridge in 312 AD
A few years later, in 315, the Senate erected an arch in honor of Constantine, for he “by the inspiration of the Divine and the greatness of the Spirit freed the state from the tyrant.” In the most crowded place in the city, a statue was erected to him, with the saving sign of the cross in his right hand.
A year later, after the victory over Maxentius, Constantine and Licinius, who entered into an agreement with him, met in Milan and, after discussing the state of affairs in the Empire, issued an interesting document called the Edict of Milan.
The significance of the Edict of Milan in the history of Christianity cannot be overestimated. For the first time after almost 300 years of persecution, Christians received the right to legal existence and open confession of their faith. If earlier they were outcasts of society, now they could participate in public life, hold public office. The church received the right to purchase real estate, build temples, charitable and educational activities. The change in the position of the Church was so radical that the Church forever preserved the grateful memory of Constantine, proclaiming him a saint and equal to the apostles.
Material prepared by Sergey SHULYAK
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EDICT OF MILAN - the edict (decree) of the Roman emperors-co-rulers Licinius and Constantine (314-323) on the recognition of Christianity along with other religions, issued by them, according to the testimony of the church historian Eusebius of Caesarea (about 263-340), in 313 in Mediolane (now Milan). It is also widely known as the "edict of religious tolerance" and is considered one of the most important documents in the history of Christianity, which opened the way for the Christianization of Europe. His goal was to attract supporters of Christianity to his side, both in the struggle of emperors with each other, and with other contenders for the Roman throne. At the beginning of the IV century. Christianity professed no more than one tenth of the population of the Roman Empire, however, Christians by this time had already managed to create a strong organization with a powerful material base, since both rich and poor people did not skimp on donations in the hope of afterlife bliss. The rulers understood the restraining role of the Christian church and also endowed it with privileges and land allotments. As a result, by the beginning of the IV century. the Christian church owned a tenth of all the lands of the empire, and the colleges and the Christian communities created around them, specializing in burial rituals, owned the most significant property. The pagan religion, requiring only the observance of external rites, left room for freedom of thought, while Christianity demanded the unconditional recognition of dogma. Therefore, it was precisely this religion that was the most suitable ideological base for a monarchy headed by a “holy” emperor, who, moreover, was considered the high priest (Pontifex Maximus), the protector of traditional beliefs. Christians instilled fear and hostility in pagans with their secrecy due to the peculiarities of worship, intolerance towards other religious ideas, open disrespect for the gods of traditional religion. There is an opinion that the Roman emperors were the organizers of the persecution of Christians who rejected domestic gods, but this is only partly true. In reality, researchers advise looking for the main causes of persecution not at the state, but at the municipal level; they were almost always caused by property disputes, accompanied by pogroms. At the municipal level, in colleges, these disputes could not always be resolved peacefully, relying on legislation, since the prefects did not have enough authority or desire to do this. So they appealed to the supreme authority. The retaliatory measures on the part of the authorities were not always adequate, and the Christian clergy used these situations to speak on behalf of the unjustly offended. Providing charity to the affected citizens from donated funds, Christian presbyters (and later bishops) attracted pagans to their side, introducing them to the rank of "faithful." The ceremony of initiation at the same time was obviously mysterious. This mystery was especially evident in burial rites. Among the rulers there were many people who sympathized with Christianity. One of them in this era was the co-ruler of Emperor Diocletian (284-305) - Constantius Chlorus (293-305), whose illegitimate son was Constantine I the Great. It is precisely this fact (that is, the fact that the emperor was fed "Christian milk") that Christian tradition explains the emergence of the edict of Constantine, which granted freedom of religion to Christians, who went down in history under the name of the Edict of Milan. However, in reality, his appearance was caused not so much by the Christian upbringing of the future emperor, but by the political situation that developed at that time. Emperor Diocletian in 285 divided the empire with his comrade-in-arms Maximian in order to more easily fight off enemies; both bore the title of Augustus. In 292, two more emperors with the titles of Caesars were attached to power - Constantius Chlorus for the West and Galerius (293-311) for the East. Thus, from 293 to 305 years. The Roman Empire was ruled by four emperors: Diocletian, Maximian, Constantius and Galerius.
The Edict of Milan is a letter from the emperors Constantine and Licinius proclaiming religious tolerance in the territory of the Roman Empire. The Edict of Milan was an important step towards making Christianity the official religion of the empire. The text of the edict has not come down to us, but it is quoted by Lactantius in his work "Death of the Persecutors".
"1. Among other things that we plan (to do) for the everlasting good and benefit of the state, we, for our part, would like first of all to correct, along with the ancient laws, also the state structure of the Romans as a whole, and also to take measures to so that Christians, who have left the way of thinking of their ancestors, turn to good thoughts.
2. Indeed, for some reason these Christians were seized with zeal and such unreason took possession (of them) that they ceased to follow those ancient customs, which for the first time, perhaps, by their own ancestors were established, but by their own will, and also by whims, they made for themselves such laws, which were revered by them alone, and from contrary considerations they gathered together various peoples.
3. When at last our decree appeared that they should return to the ancient customs, some obeyed them out of fear, while others were punished.
4. However, since the majority persisted in their basic principles, and we saw that, just as the cult and due service of these gods do not cope, the god of the Christians is not honored, then, based on considerations, show our most condescending mercy and according to the constant custom of our custom of granting forgiveness to all men, we felt that our favor should be extended to them as soon as possible, so that Christians might again exist (within the law) and be able to organize their meetings (but) without doing anything against the order.
5. In another message, we intend to indicate to the judges what they should do. Therefore, in accordance with our generosity, they should pray to their god for the well-being of ours, the state and their own, so that the state is everywhere kept in perfection, and they can live peacefully in their homes.
1. This edict was promulgated at Nicomedia on the eve of the Kalends of May, in the eighth consulship (Galeria) and the second of Maximian (30.04.311).
1. Licinius, having taken part of (his) troops and distributed them, sent the army to Bithynia a few days after the battle. Arriving at Nicomedia, he gave praise to God, with whose help he won the victory. On the Ides of June (13.06.313), at his and Constantine's third consulate, he ordered the following messages submitted to the governor to be made public:
2. When I, Constantine Augustus, and also I, Licinius Augustus, safely assembled in Mediolanum and engaged in everything that concerns the benefits and well-being of the people, then, having engaged in those matters that would be, among other things, useful to most people, we decided that, first of all, we should arrange for those who have retained the worship of God that we grant both Christians and everyone else the opportunity to freely follow whatever religion anyone wishes, so that divinity, whatever it may be on the heavenly throne , could be in favor and mercy to us and to all those who are under our power.
3. Therefore, we decided to think well and in the most balanced way about this event, since we considered it impossible to deny anyone at all, whether anyone turned his mind to the Christian rite, or dedicated it to such a religion as he considered most suitable for himself, so that the supreme deity, whose cult we keep heart and soul, might give us the usual favor and approval in all things.
4. Therefore, it behooves your honor to know that we are pleased to cancel all, without exception, seized treaties regarding Christians, which were previously written down and given to you on duty for preservation, and which have come to be considered by our mercy as completely illegal and alien, and that any of those who have shown a desire to perform Christian observances can freely and simply afford to participate in them without any worry or trouble.
5. We have decided that your duties should find their fullest expression in this, for, as you know, we have granted these Christians the opportunity to practice their religious rites freely and independently.
6. When you are convinced that they are under our protection, your nobility will also understand that others have also been granted the opportunity to perform their rites equally openly and freely in the peace of our government, so that everyone is free in the right to choose a religion. This was done by us in order not to see any infringement of anyone both in official status (honor) and in the cult.
7. In addition, we thought it expedient to rule in relation to persons professing Christianity that if those places in which they used to gather were captured according to the messages also given to you before in the prescribed form on duty, and were soon bought by someone from our fiscal or anyone else, they must be returned to the Christians without charge and without any monetary claims, without resorting to deceit and chicanery (ambiguitate).
8. Those who acquired (lands) as a gift should return them to these Christians as soon as possible, but if those who received them for service or acquired them as a gift demand something from our favor, let them ask for a substitute so that about him and about they themselves were taken care of by our mercy. All this is to be conveyed through your mediation and without delay directly to the Christian community.
9. And since it is known that these Christians owned not only those places in which they usually gathered, but also others that were under the rule of their communities, that is, churches, and not individuals, all of them, according to the law set out by us above , without any doubts and disputes, you will order to return it to these Christians, that is, to their community and assemblies, observing, of course, the above principle so that those who returned it without compensation, according to what we said, hoped for compensation for damages from our favors.
10. In all this, you must render your most active mediation to the aforementioned Christian community in order to fulfill our order as quickly as possible and thereby show concern for the peace of the people by our mercy.
11. May God's favor be with us, as was said above, which we have already experienced in so many enterprises, and our people have been in prosperity and bliss at all times under our successors.
12. And so that everyone can have an idea about the form of the decree and our favor, you should put these prescriptions everywhere in the form that you prefer, and bring (them) to the public so that no one is left in the dark about the decree from our favor " .
13. To the orders submitted in writing (attached) were also verbal recommendations that the meetings should be restored to their former position. Thus, from the overthrow of the church to its restoration, 10 years and about 4 months passed.
Pre-Nicene Christianity (A.D. 100 - 325) Schaff Philip
§25. Edicts on religious tolerance. 311 - 313 A.D.
See bibliography for §24, especially Keim and Mason (Persecution of Diocletian, pp. 299, 326 sq.).
Diocletian's persecution was the last desperate attempt by Roman paganism to win. It was a crisis that was supposed to lead one of the parties to complete extinction, and the other to complete superiority. At the end of the struggle, the old Roman state religion was almost exhausted. Diocletian, cursed by Christians, retired from the throne in 305. Growing cabbages in Salona, in his native Dalmatia, he liked more than ruling a vast empire, but his peaceful old age was disturbed by a tragic incident with his wife and daughter, and in 313 when all the achievements of his reign were destroyed, he committed suicide.
Galerius, the true instigator of persecution, was made to think by a terrible illness, and shortly before his death he put an end to this massacre by his remarkable edict on religious tolerance, which he issued at Nicomedia in 311, together with Constantine and Licinius. In this document, he declared that he had not succeeded in compelling the Christians to renounce their evil innovations and to subject their numerous sects to the laws of the Roman state, and that he now allowed them to organize their religious meetings if they did not disturb the public order in the country. In conclusion, he added an important instruction: Christians “after this manifestation of mercy should pray to your God the well-being of the emperors, the state, and themselves, so that the state may prosper in all respects, and they may live in peace in their homes.
This edict practically ends the period of persecution in the Roman Empire.
For a short time, Maximinus, whom Eusebius calls "the chief of tyrants," continued to oppress and torment the church in the East in every way, and the cruel pagan Maxentius (son of Maximian and son-in-law of Galerius) did the same in Italy.
But young Constantine, originally from the far East, already in 306 became emperor of Gaul, Spain and Britain. He grew up at the court of Diocletian in Nicomedia (like Moses at the court of the pharaoh) and was appointed his successor, but fled from the intrigues of Galerius to Britain; there his father proclaimed him his heir, and the army supported him in that capacity. He crossed the Alps and, under the banner of the cross, defeated Maxentius at the Milvian bridge near Rome; the pagan tyrant, along with his army of veterans, died in the waters of the Tiber on October 27, 312. A few months later, Constantine met in Milan with his co-ruler and brother-in-law Licinius and issued a new edict on religious tolerance (313), with which Maximinus was forced to agree in Nicomedia shortly before his suicide (313). The second edict went further than the first, 311; it was a decisive step from hostile neutrality to benevolent neutrality and defense. He prepared the way for the legal recognition of Christianity as the religion of the empire. It ordered the return of all confiscated church property, Corpus Christianorum, at the expense of the imperial treasury and all the provincial city authorities were ordered to execute the order immediately and energetically, so that complete peace would be established and God's mercy would be provided to the emperors and their subjects.
Such was the first proclamation of the great principle that every man has the right to choose his religion according to the dictates of his own conscience and sincere conviction, without coercion or interference from government. Religion is worthless if it is not free. Faith under duress is not faith at all. Unfortunately, Constantine's successors, beginning with Theodosius the Great (383-395), promoted the Christian faith to the exclusion of all others, but not only that - they promoted orthodoxy as well, to the exclusion of any form of dissension, which was punished as a crime against the state.
Paganism made another desperate breakthrough. Licinius, having quarreled with Constantine, resumed persecution in the East for a short time, but in 323 he was defeated, and Constantine remained the sole ruler of the empire. He openly defended the church and was supportive of it, but did not forbid idolatry, but generally remained faithful to the policy of proclaiming religious tolerance until his death (337). This was sufficient for the success of the church, which had the vitality and energy necessary for victory; paganism quickly declined.
With Constantine, the last pagan and first Christian emperor, a new period begins. The Church ascends to the throne of the Caesars under the banner of the once despised, but now revered and triumphant cross, and gives new strength and brilliance to the ancient Roman Empire. This sudden political and social upheaval seems miraculous, but it was only the legitimate consequence of the intellectual and moral revolution that Christianity, since the second century, quietly and imperceptibly carried out in public opinion. The very cruelty of Diocletian's persecution showed the inner weakness of paganism. The Christian minority, with their ideas, already controlled the deep currents of history. Constantine, as a wise statesman, saw the signs of the times and followed them. The motto of his policy can be considered the inscription on his military banners, associated with the cross: "Nose signo vinces" .
What a contrast between Nero, the first persecuting emperor, who rode in a chariot between the rows of Christian martyrs who were burned in his gardens like torches, and Constantine, seated at the Council of Nicaea in the midst of three hundred and eighteen bishops (some of them, like the blinded Paphnutius the Confessor, Paul from Neocaesarea and ascetics from Upper Egypt, in coarse clothes, bore the marks of torture on their crippled, mutilated bodies) and giving the highest consent of the civil authorities to the decision on the eternal Divinity of the once crucified Jesus of Nazareth! Never before or since has the world seen such a revolution, except perhaps for a quiet spiritual and moral transformation accomplished by Christianity itself at the time of its inception in the first and a spiritual awakening in the sixteenth century.
The most important milestone in the history of Christianity is the edict issued by the victors of Maxentius in Mediolan (Milan) in 313. It testified that the new government not only cancels all the senseless persecutions of Christians, but also embarks on the path of cooperation with this church, moreover – brings it to a leading position among other religions.
The Edict of Toleration, officially abolishing the Diocletian persecution, was issued by the former mastermind of anti-Christian policy Galerius in Nicomedia in 311. This act allowed Christians to "exist again" and hold meetings without disturbing public order. The edict did not mention the return of confiscated property. Many Christians were released from prisons. Probably, the hopelessly ill Galerius tried to enlist the support of another god before his death. Shortly after the edict of tolerance, he died. Christianity was returned to a legal position.
The next steps towards the Christian Church were already taken by Licinius and Constantine. Especially highly ecclesiastical historians value Constantine, who all his life favored Christians. He inherited such an attitude towards them from his father Constantius Chlorus, who even in the time of Diocletian did not allow serious repressions in Gaul. The future emperor was probably introduced to Christianity in his youth by his mother Helena, who, perhaps, was a Christian herself.
Constantine, like his father, was indeed inclined towards monotheism, towards the recognition of one omnipotent deity. For a long time, a cult of this kind was popular in the empire, namely the cult of the “Invincible Sun”. He paid tribute to this hobby and the future emperor. It is alleged that the battle at the Milvian Bridge, described by us in the previous essay, finally persuaded Constantine to Christianity, in which the emperor felt the power of the intercession of the Christian God. (At least, it is possible that, having not received benevolent forecasts from pagan fortune-tellers and soothsayers, Constantine found other "priests" who promised him victory - Christians.) He probably saw well all the benefits that a strong centralized state can receive , if you put at your service a strong, organized church, based, moreover, on faith in one God. At the same time, almost until the end of his life, Constantine himself did not accept baptism.
After the defeat of Maxentius, Constantine solemnly entered Rome, and then annexed to his possessions (i.e., Gaul and Britain) the former possessions of Maxentius - Italy, Africa and Spain. Two associates - Licinius and Constantine - after the victory of the latter over Maxentius, met at the beginning of 313 in Mediolanum. Here they confirmed their alliance, reinforced by the marriage of Licinius to Constantine's sister, and adopted a new edict on religious tolerance. In fairness, it should be noted that the initiative in drawing up the Edict of Milan came, probably, from Licinius, and Constantine only signed this decree. This act was much wider than the edict of Galerius in 311.
The main thing was that the Edict of Milan proclaimed religious tolerance, freedom of religion, i.e. equality of religions, canceled previous discriminatory orders. It was aimed at stabilizing the situation, appeasing the empire. There is no doubt that the religious peace in the empire Constantine and Licinius considered one of the indispensable conditions of civil peace. As for Christians, the edict, of course, opened wide opportunities for them, but so far only equalized their rights with other believers. It again confirmed the cessation of persecution. Christians were given the right to spread their teachings. Churches, cemeteries and, in general, everything that had been taken from them were to be immediately returned to them. The edict promised damages from the state treasury through the courts if the places of assembly were already purchased by private individuals.
It should be noted that for the first time in the edict the term "state gods" was omitted. The authors constantly turned to some abstract heavenly deity, which already spoke of sympathy for Christianity.
In the future, Constantine carefully watched to ensure that the Christian church had all the privileges that pagan priests also enjoyed. This policy "opened the way for Christianity" to a greater extent than the specific measures prescribed in the Edict of Milan and implemented immediately after its publication.
Constantine systematically put forward Christianity in first place among all cults. Pagan games were abolished, and private individuals were forbidden from sacrificing to idols at home. Christian clergy were freed from civil duties, and church lands from general taxes, slaves in churches could be freed without the usual formalities. In 321, Constantine ordered the whole empire to celebrate Sunday. The church was given the right to receive property by will, Christians were allowed to occupy the highest government positions, Christian churches were built, in which it was forbidden to bring imperial statues and images. At the same time, Constantine personally took an active part in resolving church disputes, allocated troops to suppress the resistance of "heretics" (Donatists, for example), initiated the convening of church councils (which he himself presided over) and the unification of canonical institutions.
