Specificity of scientific knowledge. Specificity of scientific knowledge and criteria of scientific character

scientific knowledge - this is a type and level of knowledge aimed at producing true knowledge about reality, the discovery of objective laws based on a generalization of real facts. It rises above ordinary cognition, that is, spontaneous cognition, connected with the life activity of people and perceiving reality at the level of the phenomenon.

Epistemology - it is a science of knowledge.

Features of scientific knowledge:

Firstly, its main task is to discover and explain the objective laws of reality - natural, social and thinking. Hence the orientation of the study to the general, essential properties of the object and their expression in the system of abstraction.

Secondly, the immediate goal and highest value of scientific knowledge is an objective truth, comprehended mainly by rational means and methods.

Third, to a greater extent than other types of knowledge, it is focused on being put into practice.

Fourth, science has developed a special language, characterized by the accuracy of the use of terms, symbols, schemes.

Fifth, scientific knowledge is a complex process of reproduction of knowledge that forms an integral, developing system of concepts, theories, hypotheses, and laws.

At sixth, scientific knowledge is characterized by both rigorous evidence, the validity of the results obtained, the reliability of the conclusions, and the presence of hypotheses, conjectures, and assumptions.

Seventh, scientific knowledge needs and resorts to special tools (means) of knowledge: scientific equipment, measuring instruments, appliances.

Eighth, scientific knowledge is characterized by process. In its development, it goes through two main stages: empirical and theoretical, which are closely related.

Ninth, the field of scientific knowledge is verifiable and systematized information about various phenomena of life.

Levels of scientific knowledge:

Empirical level cognition is a direct experimental, mostly inductive, study of an object. It includes obtaining the necessary initial facts - data on the individual aspects and relationships of the object, understanding and describing the obtained data in the language of science, and their primary systematization. Cognition at this stage still remains at the level of the phenomenon, but the prerequisites for the penetration of the essence of the object have already been created.

Theoretical level characterized by deep penetration into the essence of the object under study, not only by identifying, but also by explaining the patterns of its development and functioning, by constructing a theoretical model of the object and its in-depth analysis.

Forms of scientific knowledge:

scientific fact, scientific problem, scientific hypothesis, proof, scientific theory, paradigm, unified scientific picture peace.

scientific fact - this is the initial form of scientific knowledge, in which the primary knowledge about the object is fixed; it is a reflection in the consciousness of the subject of the fact of reality. At the same time, a scientific fact is only one that can be verified and described in scientific terms.

scientific problem - it is a contradiction between new facts and existing theoretical knowledge. A scientific problem can also be defined as a kind of knowledge about ignorance, since it arises when the cognizing subject realizes the incompleteness of this or that knowledge about the object and sets the goal of eliminating this gap. The problem includes a problematic issue, a project for solving the problem and its content.

scientific hypothesis - this is a scientifically substantiated assumption that explains certain parameters of the object under study and does not contradict known scientific facts. It must satisfactorily explain the object under study, be verifiable in principle, and answer the questions posed by the scientific problem.

In addition, the main content of the hypothesis should not be in conflict with the laws established in the given system of knowledge. The assumptions that make up the content of the hypothesis must be sufficient so that they can be used to explain all the facts about which the hypothesis is put forward. The assumptions of a hypothesis should not be logically inconsistent.

The advancement of new hypotheses in science is associated with the need for a new vision of the problem and the emergence of problem situations.

Proof - this is a confirmation of the hypothesis.

Types of evidence:

Practice that directly confirms

Indirect theoretical proof, including confirmation by arguments pointing to facts and laws (inductive path), derivation of a hypothesis from other, more general and already proven provisions (deductive path), comparison, analogy, modeling, etc.

A proven hypothesis is the basis for constructing a scientific theory.

scientific theory - this is a form of reliable scientific knowledge about a certain set of objects, which is a system of interrelated statements and evidence and contains methods for explaining, transforming and predicting the phenomena of a given object area. In theory, in the form of principles and laws, knowledge is expressed about the essential connections that determine the emergence and existence of certain objects. The main cognitive functions of the theory are: synthesizing, explanatory, methodological, predictive and practical.

All theories develop within certain paradigms.

Paradigm - it is a special way of organizing knowledge and vision of the world, influencing the direction of further research. paradigm

can be compared with an optical device through which we look at a particular phenomenon.

Many theories are constantly being synthesized in unified scientific picture of the world, that is, an integral system of ideas about the general principles and laws of the structure of being.

Methods of scientific knowledge:

Method(from the Greek. Metodos - the path to something) - it is a way of activity in any of its forms.

The method includes techniques that ensure the achievement of the goal, regulating human activity and the general principles from which these techniques follow. Methods of cognitive activity form the direction of knowledge at a particular stage, the order of cognitive procedures. In terms of their content, the methods are objective, since they are ultimately determined by the nature of the object, the laws of its functioning.

scientific method - this is a set of rules, techniques and principles that ensure the natural knowledge of the object and the receipt of reliable knowledge.

Classification of methods of scientific knowledge can be done for various reasons:

First foundation. According to the nature and role in cognition, they distinguish methods - tricks, which consist of specific rules, techniques and algorithms of actions (observation, experiment, etc.) and methods-approaches, which indicate the direction and general way research (system analysis, functional analysis, diachronic method, etc.).

Second base. According to the functional purpose, there are:

a) universal methods of thinking (analysis, synthesis, comparison, generalization, induction, deduction, etc.);

b) empirical level methods (observation, experiment, survey, measurement);

c) theoretical level methods (modeling, thought experiment, analogy, mathematical methods, philosophical methods, induction and deduction).

Third ground is the degree of generality. Here the methods are divided into:

a) philosophical methods (dialectical, formal-logical, intuitive, phenomenological, hermeneutic);

b) general scientific methods, that is, methods that guide the course of knowledge in many sciences, but unlike philosophical methods, each general scientific method (observation, experiment, analysis, synthesis, modeling, etc.) solves its own, characteristic task only for it ;

c) special methods.

Some methods of scientific knowledge:

Observation - this is a purposeful, organized perception of objects and phenomena for collecting facts.

Experiment - this is an artificial recreation of a cognizable object in controlled and controlled conditions.

Formalization - this is a display of the knowledge obtained in an unambiguous formalized language.

Axiomatic Method - this is a way of building a scientific theory, when it is based on certain axioms, from which all other provisions are logically derived.

Hypothetical-deductive method - creation of a system of deductively interconnected hypotheses, from which, ultimately, explanations of scientific facts are derived.

Inductive methods for establishing the causal relationship of phenomena:

similarity method: if two or more cases of the phenomenon under study have only one preceding common circumstance, then this circumstance in which they are similar to each other is probably the cause of the phenomenon sought;

difference method: if the case in which the phenomenon of interest to us occurs, and the case in which it does not occur, are similar in everything, with the exception of one circumstance, then this is the only circumstance in which they differ from each other, and is probably the cause of the desired phenomenon;

concomitant change method: if the rise or change of an antecedent phenomenon every time causes the rise or change of another accompanying phenomenon, then the first of these is probably the cause of the second;

residual method: if it is established that the cause of a part of a complex phenomenon is not the known previous circumstances, except for one of them, then we can assume that this single circumstance is the cause of the part of the phenomenon under study that interests us.

General human methods of thinking:

- Comparison- establishing the similarities and differences of objects of reality (for example, we compare the characteristics of two engines);

- Analysis- mental dismemberment of an object as a whole

(we divide each engine into constituent elements characteristics);

- Synthesis- mental unification into a single whole of the elements selected as a result of the analysis (we mentally combine the best characteristics and elements of both engines in one - virtual);

- abstraction- selection of some features of the object and distraction from others (for example, we study only the design of the engine and temporarily do not take into account its content and functioning);

- Induction- the movement of thought from the particular to the general, from individual data to more general provisions, and in the end - to the essence (we take into account all cases of engine failures of this type and, based on this, we come to conclusions about the prospects for its further operation);

- Deduction- the movement of thought from the general to the particular (based on the general laws of engine operation, we make predictions about the further functioning of a particular engine);

- Modeling- construction of a mental object (model) similar to the real one, the study of which will allow obtaining the information necessary for knowing the real object (creating a model of a more advanced engine);

- Analogy- a conclusion about the similarity of objects in some properties, on the basis of similarity in other signs (a conclusion about an engine breakdown by a characteristic knock);

- Generalization- the union of individual objects in a certain concept (for example, the creation of the concept of "engine").

The science:

- it is a form of spiritual and practical activity of people, aimed at achieving objectively true knowledge and their systematization.

Scientific complexes:

A)natural science- this is a system of disciplines, the object of which is nature, that is, a part of being that exists according to laws not created by the activity of people.

b)Social science- this is a system of sciences about society, that is, a part of being, constantly recreated in the activities of people. Social science includes social sciences (sociology, economic theory, demography, history, etc.) and the humanities that study the values ​​of society (ethics, aesthetics, religious studies, philosophy, legal sciences, etc.)

V)Technical science- these are sciences that study the laws and specifics of the creation and functioning of complex technical systems.

G)Anthropological sciences- this is a combination of sciences about man in its entirety: physical anthropology, philosophical anthropology, medicine, pedagogy, psychology, etc.

In addition, the sciences are divided into fundamental, theoretical and applied, which are directly related to industrial practice.

Scientific criteria: universality, systematization, relative consistency, relative simplicity (the theory that explains the widest possible range of phenomena based on the minimum number of scientific principles is considered good), explanatory potential, predictive power, completeness for a given level of knowledge.

Scientific truth is characterized by objectivity, evidence, consistency (orderliness based on certain principles), verifiability.

Science Development Models:

the theory of reproduction (proliferation) of P. Feyerabend, which affirms the randomness of the emergence of concepts, the paradigm of T. Kuhn, the conventionalism of A. Poincaré, the psychophysics of E. Mach, the personal knowledge of M. Polanyi, the evolutionary epistemology of S. Toulmin, research program of I. Lakatos, thematic analysis of science by J. Holton.

K. Popper, considering knowledge in two aspects: statics and dynamics, developed the concept of the growth of scientific knowledge. In his opinion, growth of scientific knowledge is the repeated overthrow of scientific theories and their replacement by better and more perfect ones. T. Kuhn's position is radically different from this approach. His model includes two main stages: the stage of "normal science" (the dominance of one or another paradigm) and the stage of "scientific revolution" (the collapse of the old paradigm and the establishment of a new one).

global scientific revolution - this is a change in the general scientific picture of the world, accompanied by changes in the ideals, norms and philosophical foundations of science.

Within the framework of classical natural science, two revolutions stand out. First associated with the formation of classical natural science in the 17th century. Second The revolution dates back to the end of the 18th - beginning of the 19th century. and marks the transition to a disciplinary organized science. Third The global scientific revolution covers the period from the end of the 19th century to the middle of the 20th century. and is associated with the formation of non-classical natural science. At the end of XX - beginning of XXI century. new radical changes are taking place in the foundations of science, which can be characterized as fourth global revolution. In the course of it, a new post-nonclassical science is born.

Three revolutions (out of four) led to the establishment of new types of scientific rationality:

1. Classical type of scientific rationality(XVIII-XIX centuries). At that time, the following ideas about science were established: the value of objective universal true knowledge appeared, science was seen as a reliable and absolutely rational enterprise with which to solve all the problems of mankind, natural scientific knowledge was considered the highest achievement, the object and subject of scientific research were presented in a rigid epistemological confrontation, explanation was interpreted as a search for mechanical causes and substances. In classical science, it was believed that only laws of a dynamic type could be true laws.

2. Non-classical type of scientific rationality(XX century). Its features are: the coexistence of alternative concepts, the complication of scientific ideas about the world, the assumption of probabilistic, discrete, paradoxical phenomena, reliance on the unavoidable presence of the subject in the processes under study, the assumption of the absence of an unambiguous connection between theory and reality; science begins to determine the development of technology.

3. Post-nonclassical type of scientific rationality(late XX - early XXI century). It is characterized by an understanding of the extreme complexity of the processes under study, the emergence of a value perspective in the study of problems, and a high degree of use of interdisciplinary approaches.

Science and Society:

Science is closely interconnected with the development of society. This is manifested primarily in the fact that it is ultimately determined, conditioned by social practice and its needs. However, with each decade, the reverse influence of science on society is also increasing. The connection and interaction of science, technology and production is becoming stronger and stronger - science is turning into a direct productive force of society. How is it shown?

Firstly, science is now overtaking the development of technology, becoming the leading force in the progress of material production.

Secondly, science permeates all spheres of social life.

Third, science is increasingly focused not only on technology, but also on the person himself, the development of his creative abilities, the culture of thinking, the creation of material and spiritual prerequisites for his integral development.

Fourth, the development of science leads to the emergence of parascientific knowledge. This is a collective name for ideological and hypothetical concepts and teachings characterized by an anti-scientist orientation. The term "parascience" refers to statements or theories that deviate to a greater or lesser extent from the standards of science and contain both fundamentally erroneous and possibly true statements. Concepts most often referred to as parascience: obsolete scientific concepts such as alchemy, astrology, etc., which have played a certain role historical role in the development of modern science; traditional medicine and other "traditional", but to a certain extent oppositional modern science teachings; sports, family, culinary, labor, etc. "sciences", which are examples of the systematization of practical experience and applied knowledge, but do not correspond to the definition of science as such.

Approaches to assessing the role of science in the modern world. First approach - scientism claims that with the help of natural-technical scientific knowledge it is possible to solve all social problems

Second approach - antiscientism, proceeding from the negative consequences of the scientific and technological revolution, it rejects science and technology, considering them forces hostile to the true essence of man. Socio-historical practice shows that it is equally wrong to both exorbitantly absolutize science and underestimate it.

Functions of modern science:

1. Cognitive;

2. Cultural and worldview (providing society with a scientific worldview);

3. Function of direct productive force;

4. The function of social power (scientific knowledge and methods are widely used in solving all the problems of society).

Patterns of the development of science: continuity, a complex combination of processes of differentiation and integration of scientific disciplines, the deepening and expansion of the processes of mathematization and computerization, theorization and dialectization of modern scientific knowledge, the alternation of relatively calm periods of development and periods of "abrupt breaking" (scientific revolutions) of laws and principles.

The formation of modern NCM is largely associated with discoveries in quantum physics.

Science and technology

Technique in the broad sense of the word - it is an artifact, that is, everything artificially created. Artifacts are: material and ideal.

Technique in the narrow sense of the word - this is a set of material-energy and information devices and means created by society for the implementation of its activities.

The basis of the philosophical analysis of technology was the ancient Greek concept of "techne", which meant skill, art, the ability to create something from natural material.

M. Heidegger believed that technology is a way of being a person, a way of his self-regulation. Yu. Habermas believed that technology unites everything "material", opposing the world of ideas. O. Toffler substantiated the wave-like nature of the development of technology and its impact on society.

Technology is the manifestation of technology. If what a person affects is a technique, then how it affects is technology.

Technosphere- this is a special part of the Earth's shell, which is a synthesis of artificial and natural, created by society to meet its needs.

Equipment classification:

By type of activity distinguish: material and production, transport and communications, scientific research, learning process, medical, sports, household, military.

By type of natural process used there is mechanical, electronic, nuclear, laser and other equipment.

According to the level of structural complexity the following historical forms techniques: guns (manual labor, mental labor and human life) cars And automata. The sequence of these forms of technology, on the whole, corresponds to the historical stages in the development of technology itself.

Trends in the development of technology at the present stage:

The size of many technical means is constantly growing. So, the excavator bucket in 1930 had a volume of 4 cubic meters, and now 170 cubic meters. Transport planes are already lifting 500 or more passengers, and so on.

There was a trend of the opposite property, to a decrease in the size of equipment. For example, the creation of microminiature personal computers, tape recorders without cassettes, etc., has already become a reality.

Increasingly, technical innovation is driven by the application of scientific knowledge. A striking example of this is space technology, which has become the embodiment of scientific developments of more than two dozen natural and technical sciences. Discoveries in scientific creativity give impetus to technical creativity with inventions characteristic of it. The fusion of science and technology into a single system that has radically changed the life of a person, society, and the biosphere is called scientific and technological revolution(NTR).

There is a more intensive merging of technical means in complex systems and complexes: factories, power plants, communication systems, ships, etc. The prevalence and scale of these complexes allows us to speak about the existence of a technosphere on our planet.

An important and constantly growing field of application of modern technology and technology is the information field.

Informatization - it is the process of production, storage and dissemination of information in society.

Historical forms of informatization: Speaking; writing; typography; electrical - electronic reproductive devices (radio, telephone, television, etc.); EVM (computers).

The mass use of the computer marked a special stage of informatization. Unlike physical resources, information as a resource has a unique property - when used, it does not decrease, but, on the contrary, expands. The inexhaustibility of information resources dramatically accelerates the technological cycle "knowledge - production - knowledge", causes an avalanche-like increase in the number of people involved in the process of obtaining, formalizing and processing knowledge (in the USA, 77% of employees are involved in the field of information activities and services), has an impact on the prevalence of systems mass media and manipulation of public opinion. Based on these circumstances, many scientists and philosophers (D. Bell, T. Stoner, J. Masuda) proclaimed the offensive of the information society.

Signs of the information society:

Free access for any person in any place, at any time to any information;

The production of information in this society should be carried out in the volumes necessary to ensure the life of the individual and society in all its parts and directions;

Science should occupy a special place in the production of information;

Accelerated automation and operation;

Priority development of information activities and services.

Undoubtedly, the information society has certain advantages and benefits. However, one cannot fail to note its problems: computer theft, the possibility of an informational computer war, the possibility of establishing an information dictatorship and terror of provider organizations, etc.

Relationship between man and technology

On the one hand, the facts and ideas of distrust and hostility to technology. In ancient China, some Taoist sages denied technology, motivating their actions by the fact that, using technology, you become addicted to it, lose your freedom of action and become a mechanism yourself. In the 30s of the twentieth century, O. Spengler in the book "Man and Technology" argued that man has become a slave to machines and will be driven to death by them.

At the same time, the seeming indispensability of technology in all spheres of human existence sometimes gives rise to an unrestrained apology for technology, a kind of the ideology of technology. How is it shown? Firstly. In the exaggeration of the role and importance of technology in human life and, secondly, in the transfer to humanity and personality of the characteristics inherent in machines. Supporters of technocracy see the prospects for progress in the concentration of political power in the hands of the technical intelligentsia.

The consequences of the influence of technology on humans:

beneficial component includes the following:

the wide dissemination of technology contributed to the lengthening of the average life expectancy of a person by almost two times;

technology freed a person from embarrassing circumstances and increased his free time;

new information technology has qualitatively expanded the scope and forms of human intellectual activity;

technology has brought progress in the process of education; technology has raised the efficiency of human activity in various spheres of society.

Negative the impact of technology on man and society is as follows: some of its types of technology pose a danger to human life and health, the threat of environmental catastrophe has increased, and the number of occupational diseases has increased;

a person, becoming a particle of some technical system, loses its creative essence; an increasing amount of information tends to decrease the share of knowledge that one person is able to possess;

technique can be used as effective remedy suppression, total control and manipulation of personality;

the impact of technology on the human psyche is enormous both through virtual reality and through the replacement of the "symbol-image" chain with another "image-image", which leads to a halt in the development of figurative and abstract thinking, as well as the emergence of neurosis and mental illness.

Engineer(from French and Latin means “creator”, “creator”, “inventor” in a broad sense) is a person who mentally creates a technical object and controls the process of its manufacture and operation. Engineering activities - it is the activity of mentally creating a technical object and managing the process of its manufacture and operation. Engineering activities emerged from technical activities in the 18th century during the industrial revolution.

Science as a peculiar form of knowledge began to develop relatively independently in the era of the formation of the capitalist mode of production (XVI-XVII centuries). However, independence is not identical to self-isolation. Science has always been connected with practice, received from it more and more new impulses for its development and, in turn, influenced the course of practical activity, objectified, materialized in it.

SCIENCE is a form of people's spiritual activity that produces knowledge about nature, society and knowledge itself. Its immediate goal is to comprehend the truth and discover the objective laws of the development of the world. Therefore, science as a whole forms a single, interconnected, DEVELOPING SYSTEM OF KNOWLEDGE ABOUT SUCH LAWS.

At the same time, depending on the study of one or another form of matter, side of reality, science is divided into many branches of knowledge (tea sciences). This main criterion classification. Other criteria are also used. In particular, ON THE SUBJECT AND METHOD OF KNOWLEDGE, one can single out the sciences about nature - natural science and society - social science (humanities, social sciences), about cognition, thinking (logic, epistemology, etc.). A very peculiar science is modern mathematics. A separate group is made up of technical sciences.

In turn, each group of sciences is subjected to a more detailed division. Yes, in the composition natural sciences includes mechanics, physics, chemistry, biology, etc., each of which is subdivided into a number of scientific disciplines - physical chemistry, biophysics, etc. The science of the most general laws of reality is philosophy, which, as we found out in the first lecture, cannot be fully attributed only to science.

Let's take one more criterion: BY THEIR REMOTENESS FROM PRACTICE, science can be divided into two major types: FUNDAMENTAL. where there is no direct orientation to practice, and APPLIED - the direct application of the results of scientific knowledge to solve production and socio-practical problems. Science as a form of cognition and a social institution studies itself with the help of a complex of disciplines, which includes the history and logic of science, the psychology of scientific creativity, the sociology of scientific knowledge and science, science of science, etc. At present, the philosophy of science is rapidly developing (more on this in the next lectures).

With all this, we must always remember that, regardless of the criteria and depth of classification, the boundaries between individual sciences and scientific disciplines are conditional and mobile.

MAIN FEATURES OF SCIENTIFIC KNOWLEDGE: 1. The first and main task of scientific knowledge, as we have already found out, is the discovery of the objective laws of reality - natural, social (social), the laws of knowledge itself, thinking, etc. Hence the orientation of research mainly on the essential properties of the subject and their expression in a system of abstractions. Without this, there can be no science, because the very concept of scientificity presupposes the discovery of laws, a deepening into the essence of the phenomena being studied.

2. The immediate goal and highest value of scientific knowledge is objective truth, comprehended primarily by rational means and methods, but, of course, not without the participation of living contemplation. The activity of the subject is the most important condition and prerequisite for scientific knowledge. But priority is given to objectivity. OBJECTIVITY is a characteristic feature of scientific knowledge.

3. Science, to a greater extent than other forms of knowledge, is focused on practical implementation. The vital meaning of scientific research can be expressed by the formula: "To know in order to foresee, to foresee in order to practically act" - not only in the present, but also in the future.

4. Scientific knowledge in epistemological terms is a complex, contradictory process of reproducing knowledge that forms an integral developing system of concepts, theories, hypotheses, laws and other ideal forms fixed in a language - natural or, more characteristically, artificial (mathematical symbolism, chemical formulas and so on.). The process of continuous self-renewal by science of its conceptual arsenal is an important indicator of scientific character.

5. In the process of scientific knowledge, such specific material means as devices, tools, and other so-called. "scientific equipment", often very complex and expensive (synchrophasotrons, radio telescopes, rocket and space technology, etc.). In addition, science, to a greater extent than other forms of cognition, is characterized by the use in research of its objects and itself of such ideal (spiritual) means and methods as modern logic, mathematical methods, dialectics, systemic, cybernetic and other general scientific techniques and methods. (more on this below).

6. Scientific knowledge is characterized by strict evidence, the validity of the results obtained, the reliability of the conclusions. At the same time, it contains many hypotheses, conjectures, assumptions, and probabilistic judgments. That is why the logical and methodological training of researchers, their philosophical culture, and the ability to correctly use the laws and principles of thinking are of paramount importance here.

In modern methodology, there are various criteria for scientific character. These include, in addition to the above, such as the internal systemic nature of knowledge, its formal consistency, experimental verifiability, reproducibility, openness to criticism, freedom from bias, rigor, etc. In other forms of cognition, these criteria appear to varying degrees, but are not defining.

SPECIFICITY OF KNOWLEDGE OF SOCIAL PHENOMENA. For a long time, the analysis of science and scientific cognition was modeled on the basis of natural-mathematical methods of cognition. Its characteristics were attributed to science as a whole as such, as positivism clearly testified. IN last years sharply increased interest in social (humanitarian) knowledge. When it comes to social cognition as one of the peculiar types of scientific cognition, one should keep in mind two its aspect:

1) any knowledge in each of its forms is always social, because it is a social product and is determined by cultural and historical reasons;

2) one of the types of scientific knowledge, which has as its subject social (social) phenomena and processes - society as a whole or its individual aspects: economics, politics, the spiritual sphere, etc.

In research, it is unacceptable both to reduce social phenomena to natural ones (attempts to explain social processes only by the laws of natural science), and to oppose the natural and the social, up to their complete rupture. In the first case, social and humanitarian knowledge is identified with natural science and mechanically, uncritically reduced (reduction) to it. This is naturalism, acting in the forms of mechanism, physicalism, biologism, etc. In the second case, there is an opposition between natural science and the sciences of culture, often accompanied by discrediting the "exact" sciences ("humanities").

Both types of sciences are branches of science as a whole, characterized by unity and difference. Each of them, with a close relationship, has its own characteristics. The specificity of social (humanitarian) knowledge is manifested in the following:

1. Its subject is the "world of man", and not just a thing as such. And this means that this subject has a subjective dimension, it includes a person as "the author and performer of his own drama", he is also its researcher. Humanitarian knowledge does not deal with real things and their properties, but with people's relationships. Here the material and the ideal, the objective and the subjective, the conscious and the elemental, etc. are closely intertwined. Here interests and passions collide, certain goals are set and realized, and so on.

Since society is the activity of people, social knowledge explores its diverse forms, and not nature. The discovery of the laws of this activity is, at the same time, the discovery of the laws of society and, on this basis, the laws and principles of cognition and thinking itself.

2. Social cognition is inseparably and constantly connected with subjective (assessment of phenomena from the point of view of good and evil, fair and unfair, etc.) and "subjective" (attitudes, views, norms, goals, etc.) values. They determine the human weighty and cultural significance of certain phenomena of reality. Such, in particular, are the political, ideological, moral convictions of a person, his attachments, principles and motives of behavior, etc. All these and similar moments are included in the process social research and inevitably affect the content of the knowledge obtained.

3. Feature social cognition is its primary focus on the "qualitative coloring of events." Here the phenomena are investigated mainly from the point of view of quality, not quantity. Therefore, the share of quantitative methods in humanities much less than in the sciences of the natural-mathematical cycle, although their application is becoming more widespread. At the same time, the main attention is paid to the analysis of the single, individual, but on the basis of the renewal of the general, natural.

4. In social cognition, neither a microscope, nor chemical reagents, nor even the most sophisticated technical equipment, can be used. All this should be replaced by the power of abstraction. Therefore, the role of thinking, its forms, principles and methods is exceptionally great here. If in natural science the form of comprehension of an object is a monologue (because nature is "silent"), then in humanitarian knowledge it is a dialogue (of personalities, texts, cultures, etc.). The dialogical nature of social cognition is most fully expressed in the procedures of understanding. It is just immersion in the "world of meanings" of another person, comprehension and interpretation (interpretation) of his feelings, thoughts and aspirations. Understanding as familiarization with the meanings of human activity and as meaning formation is closely related to self-understanding and occurs in the conditions of human communication.

5. In view of the above circumstances, a "good" philosophy and a correct method play an extremely important role in social cognition. Their deep knowledge and skillful application make it possible to adequately comprehend the complex, contradictory, purely dialectical nature of social phenomena and processes, the nature of thinking, its forms and principles, their permeation with value-worldview components and their influence on the results of cognition, the meaning-life orientations of people, the features of dialogue. (inconceivable without the formulation and resolution of contradictions-problems), etc. This is all the more important because social cognition is characterized by the absence of universally recognized paradigms (often leading to "theoretical anarchism"), the mobility and vagueness of its empirical basis, the complex nature of theoretical generalizations (primarily associated with the inclusion of value components and "personal modalities").

In short, this is all about the subject and specifics of scientific knowledge. Now we will stop on ITS STRUCTURE.

Scientific knowledge is a process, i.e. evolving system of knowledge. It includes TWO BASIC LEVELS - empirical and theoretical. Although they are related, they differ from each other, each of them has its own specifics. What is it?

At the EMPIRICAL LEVEL, living contemplation (sensory cognition) prevails, the rational moment and its forms (judgments, concepts, etc.) are present here, but have a subordinate meaning. Therefore, the object is studied primarily from the side of its external connections and relations, accessible to living contemplation. The collection of facts, their primary generalization, description of observed and experimental data, their systematization, classification and other fact-fixing activities are characteristic features of empirical knowledge.

Empirical research is directed directly (without intermediate links) to its object. It masters it with the help of such techniques and means as comparison, measurement, observation, experiment, analysis, induction (more on these techniques below). However, one should not forget that experience, especially in modern science, is never blind: it is planned, constructed by theory, and facts are always theoretically loaded in one way or another. Therefore, the STARTING POINT, THE BEGINNING OF SCIENCE, is, strictly speaking, not objects in themselves, not bare facts (even in their totality), but theoretical schemes, "conceptual frameworks of reality." They consist of abstract objects ("ideal constructs") of various kinds - postulates, principles, definitions, conceptual models, etc.

It turns out that we "make" our experience ourselves. It is the theoretician who points the way to the experimenter. Moreover, theory dominates experimental work from its initial plan to the final touches in the laboratory. Accordingly, there can be no “pure language of observations”, since all languages ​​are “permeated with theories”, and bare facts, taken outside and in addition to the conceptual framework, are not fundamental. new theory.

The specificity of the THEORETICAL LEVEL of scientific knowledge is determined by the predominance of the rational moment - concepts, theories, laws and other forms and "mental operations". Living contemplation is not eliminated here, but becomes a subordinate (but very important) aspect of the cognitive process. Theoretical knowledge reflects phenomena and processes from the point of view of their universal internal connections and regularities comprehended with the help of rational data processing of empirical knowledge. This processing includes a system of "higher order" abstractions, such as concepts, inferences, laws, categories, principles, etc.

On the basis of empirical data, the objects under study are mentally combined, their essence, "internal movement", the laws of their existence, which constitute the main content of theories - the "quintessence" of knowledge at a given level, are comprehended.

The most important task of theoretical knowledge is the achievement of objective truth in all its concreteness and completeness of content. At the same time, such cognitive techniques and means as abstraction - abstraction from a number of properties and relations of objects, idealization - the process of creating purely mental objects ("point", " ideal gas"etc.), synthesis - combining the elements obtained as a result of analysis into a system, deduction - the movement of knowledge from the general to the particular, the ascent from the abstract to the concrete, etc. The presence of idealizations in cognition serves as an indicator of the development of theoretical knowledge as a set of certain ideal models.

A characteristic feature of theoretical knowledge is its focus on itself, INTRA-SCIENTIFIC REFLECTION, i.e. study of the process of cognition itself, its forms, techniques, methods, conceptual apparatus, etc. On the basis of a theoretical explanation and known laws, a prediction, a scientific prediction of the future, is carried out.

EMPIRICAL AND THEORETICAL LEVELS OF KNOWLEDGE ARE INTERRELATED, the boundary between them is conditional and mobile. At certain points in the development of science, the empirical becomes theoretical and vice versa. However, it is unacceptable to absolutize one of these levels to the detriment of the other.

EMPIRISM reduces scientific knowledge as a whole to its empirical level, belittling or completely rejecting theoretical knowledge. "Scholastic theorizing" ignores the significance of empirical data, rejects the need for a comprehensive analysis of facts as a source and basis for theoretical constructions, and breaks away from real life. Its product is illusory-utopian, dogmatic constructions, such as, for example, the concept of the "introduction of communism in 1980." or "theory" of developed socialism.

Considering theoretical knowledge as the highest and most developed, one should first of all determine its structural components. The main ones are: problem, hypothesis and theory ("key points" of the construction and development of knowledge at its theoretical level).

PROBLEM - a form of knowledge, the content of which is that which is not yet known by man, but which needs to be known. In other words, this is knowledge about ignorance, a question that has arisen in the course of cognition and requires an answer. The problem is not a frozen form of knowledge, but a process that includes two main points (stages of the movement of knowledge) - its formulation and solution. The correct derivation of problematic knowledge from previous facts and generalizations, the ability to correctly pose the problem is a necessary prerequisite for its successful solution.

Scientific problems should be distinguished from non-scientific (pseudo-problems), for example, the problem of creating a perpetual motion machine. The solution of a particular problem is an essential moment in the development of knowledge, during which new problems arise, and new problems are put forward, certain conceptual ideas, incl. and hypotheses.

HYPOTHESIS - a form of knowledge containing an assumption formulated on the basis of a number of facts, the true meaning of which is uncertain and needs to be proven. Hypothetical knowledge is probable, not reliable, and requires verification, justification. In the course of proving the hypotheses put forward, some of them become a true theory, others are modified, refined and concretized, turn into errors if the test gives a negative result.

The periodic law discovered by D. I. Mendeleev, and the theory of Ch. Darwin, etc. have also passed the hypothesis stage. The decisive test of the truth of a hypothesis is practice (the logical criterion of truth plays an auxiliary role in this). A tested and proven hypothesis passes into the category of reliable truths, becomes a scientific theory.

THEORY is the most developed form of scientific knowledge, which gives a holistic display of the regular and essential connections of a certain area of ​​reality. Examples of this form of knowledge are Newton's classical mechanics, Darwin's evolutionary theory, Einstein's theory of relativity, the theory of self-organizing integral systems (synergetics), etc.

In practice, scientific knowledge is successfully implemented only when people are convinced of its truth. Without turning an idea into a personal conviction, a person's faith, successful practical implementation of theoretical ideas is impossible.

Among the many different cognitive processes, the main types of cognition can be distinguished. There is no unity of opinion in their classification, but most often they talk about ordinary (everyday), mythological, religious, artistic, philosophical and scientific knowledge. Let us briefly consider here only two types of knowledge - ordinary, which serves as the foundation of human life and any cognitive process, and scientific, which today has a decisive impact on all spheres of human activity.

Ordinary knowledge- this is the primary, most simple form of cognitive activity of the subject. It is spontaneously carried out by each person throughout his life, serves as an adaptation to the real conditions of everyday life and is aimed at acquiring the knowledge and skills that he needs every day and hour. Such knowledge is usually quite superficial, far from always substantiated and systematized, the reliable in them is closely intertwined with delusions and prejudices. At the same time, in the form of so-called common sense, they embody real worldly experience, a kind of wisdom that allows a person to behave rationally in a variety of everyday situations. Ordinary knowledge, moreover, is constantly open to the results of other types of knowledge - for example, scientific: common sense is able to assimilate the relatively simple truths of science and become more and more theorized. Unfortunately, such an impact of science on everyday consciousness is not as great as we would like, for example, one study showed that half of the US adult population surveyed does not know that the Earth revolves around the Sun in 1 year. In general, ordinary knowledge is always limited by certain limits - only external properties and connections of objects of everyday experience are available to it. To obtain deeper and more essential information about reality, it is necessary to turn to scientific knowledge.

scientific knowledge fundamentally different from the ordinary. Firstly, it is not available to any person, but only to those who have undergone specialized training (for example, received higher education), which gave him the knowledge and skills for research activities. Secondly, scientific knowledge is specifically focused on the study of phenomena (and the laws of their existence) that are unknown to today's common practice. Thirdly, science uses special means, methods and tools that are not used in traditional production and everyday experience. Fourthly, the knowledge obtained in scientific research has a fundamental novelty, it is substantiated, systematically organized and expressed using a special, scientific language.

For the emergence and development of scientific knowledge, certain sociocultural conditions are needed. Modern research has shown that scientific knowledge could not arise in the so-called traditional society (such were the civilizations of the Ancient East - China, India, etc.), which is characterized by a slow pace social change, authoritarian power, the priority of traditions in thinking and activity, etc. Knowledge is valued here not in itself, but only in its practical application. It is clear that in these conditions a person is more inclined to follow established patterns and norms than to look for non-traditional approaches and ways of cognition.

Scientific knowledge was destined to take shape in a technogenic society, which implies high rates of change in all spheres of life, which is impossible without a constant influx of new knowledge. The prerequisites for such a society are formed in the culture of Ancient Greece. Let us recall that the democratic structure of society, the freedom of the citizen contributed to the development of the vigorous activity of individuals, their ability to logically substantiate and defend their position, to offer new approaches to solving the problems under discussion. All this led to the search for innovations in all types of activity, including cognition (it is no coincidence that it is in Greece that the first model of theoretical science, the geometry of Euclid, is born). The cult of the human mind, the idea of ​​its omnipotence then finds its development in the culture of the European Renaissance, which contributes to the formation of professional scientific knowledge and the emergence of modern science.

Scientific knowledge is usually carried out at two levels - empirical and theoretical. empirical(from Greek. empeiria- experience) knowledge gives us information about the external aspects and relationships of the objects under study, fixes and describes them. It is carried out mainly with the help of methods of observation and experiment. Observation- this is a purposeful and systematic perception of the studied phenomena (for example, the study of the behavior of great apes in the natural conditions of their life). When observing, the scientist tries not to interfere with the natural course of things, so as not to distort it.

Experiment- specially prepared experience. In the course of its study, the object under study is placed in artificial conditions, which can be changed and taken into account. Obviously, this method is characterized by the high activity of a scientist who is trying to gain as much knowledge as possible about the behavior of an object in various situations, and even more than that, to artificially obtain new things and phenomena that do not exist in nature (this is especially true for chemical research).

Of course, in addition to these methods of cognition, empirical research also uses methods of logical thinking - analysis and synthesis, induction and deduction, etc. Using the combination of all these methods - both practical and logical - the scientist receives new empirical knowledge. It is expressed mainly in three main forms:

scientific fact - fixation of one or another property or event (Phenol melts at a temperature of 40.9 ° C; In 1986, the passage of Halley's comet was observed);

scientific description- fixation of an integral system of properties and parameters of a particular phenomenon or group of phenomena. This kind of knowledge is given in encyclopedias, scientific reference books, textbooks, etc.;

empirical dependence – knowledge that reflects certain relationships inherent in a group of phenomena or events (The planets move around the Sun in elliptical orbits - one of Kepler's laws; Halley's Comet revolves around the Sun with a period of 75 -76 years).

theoretical(from Greek. theory– consideration, research) knowledge reveals the internal connections and relationships of things and phenomena, rationally explains them, reveals the laws of their being. It is therefore knowledge more high order than the empirical - it is no coincidence, for example, Heidegger defines science itself as "the theory of the real".

In theoretical knowledge, special mental operations are used that allow one way or another to come to new knowledge, which explains the previously received or develops the existing theoretical knowledge. These mental methods are always associated with the use of scientific concepts and so-called ideal objects(remember, for example, the concepts of "material point", "ideal gas", "absolutely black body", etc.). Scientists spend with them thought experiments, they use the hypothetical-deductive method (reasoning that allows you to put forward a hypothesis and derive consequences from it that can be verified), the method of ascent from the abstract to the concrete (the operation of combining new scientific concepts with existing ones in order to build a more general theory of a specific object - for example, an atom ), etc. In a word, theoretical knowledge is always a long and complex work of thought, carried out with the help of various methods.

The theoretical knowledge gained from these intellectual operations exists in various forms Oh. The most important of them are:

problem- a question, the answer to which is not yet available in scientific knowledge, a kind of knowledge about ignorance (for example, physicists in principle know today what a thermonuclear reaction is, but cannot say how to make it controllable);

hypothesis- a scientific assumption that probabilistically explains a particular problem (for example, various hypotheses about the origin of life on Earth);

theory- reliable knowledge about the essence and laws of being of a certain class of objects (say, the theory of the chemical structure of A. M. Butlerov). There are rather complex relationships between these forms of knowledge, but in general their dynamics can be described as follows:

The occurrence of a problem;

Putting forward a hypothesis as an attempt to solve this problem;

Hypothesis testing (for example, using an experiment);

Construction of a new theory (if the hypothesis is somehow confirmed); the emergence of a new problem (since no theory gives us absolutely complete and reliable knowledge) - and then this cognitive cycle is repeated.

The purpose of the lecture: To analyze the nature of scientific knowledge and the peculiarities of the relationship between religion and philosophy. Show the differences between philosophy and science, the nature of their relationship. Determine the axiological status of science. To reveal the problem of personality in science.

• 4.1 Science and religion.
• 4.2 Science and philosophy.

References:

• 1. Holton J. What is anti-science // Questions of Philosophy. 1992. No. 2.
• 2. Polanyi M. Personal knowledge. M., 1985.
• 3. Russell B. History of Western Philosophy: In 2 vols. Novosibirsk, 1994. Vol. 1.
• 4. Frank F. Philosophy of science. M., 1960.
• 5. Leshkevich G.G. Philosophy. Introductory course. M., 1998.
• 6. Rorty R. Philosophy and mirror of nature. Novosibirsk, 1991.

The problem of distinguishing science from other forms of cognitive activity (artistic, religious, everyday, mystical) is the problem of demarcation, i.e. search for criteria for distinguishing between scientific and non-(outside) scientific constructions. Science differs from other spheres of human spiritual activity in that the cognitive component in it is dominant.

Features of scientific knowledge (criteria of scientific character).

• 1. The main task of scientific knowledge is the discovery of the objective laws of reality - natural, social, the laws of knowledge itself, thinking, etc. sociocultural knowledge philosophy
• 2. On the basis of knowledge of the laws of functioning and development of the objects under study, science predicts the future in order to further the practical development of reality.
• 3. The immediate goal and highest value of scientific knowledge is objective truth, comprehended mainly by rational means and methods, as well as by contemplation and non-rational means.
• 4. An essential feature of cognition is its consistency, i.e. a set of knowledge put in order on the basis of certain theoretical principles, which unite individual knowledge into an integral organic system. Science is not only a holistic, but also a developing system, such are specific scientific disciplines, as well as other elements of the structure of science - problems, hypotheses, theories, scientific paradigms, etc.
• 5. Science is characterized by constant methodological reflection.
• 6. Scientific knowledge is characterized by strict evidence, the validity of the results obtained, the reliability of the conclusions.
• 7. Scientific knowledge is a complex, contradictory process of production and reproduction of new knowledge, forming an integral and developing system of concepts, theories, hypotheses, laws and other ideal forms fixed in a language - natural or (more characteristically) artificial.
• 8. Knowledge, claiming the status of scientific, must allow the fundamental possibility of empirical verification. The process of establishing the truth of scientific statements through observations and experiments is called verification, and the process of establishing their falsity is called falsification.
• 9. In the process of scientific knowledge, such specific material means as devices, tools, and other "scientific equipment" are used.
• 10. The subject of scientific activity - an individual researcher, the scientific community, a "collective subject" - has specific characteristics. Engaging in science requires special training of the cognizing subject, during which he masters the existing stock of knowledge, the means and methods of obtaining it, the system of value orientations and goals specific to scientific cognition, its ethical principles.

Worldview is a set of views on the most basic issues of being in general and of man (the essence of being, the meaning of life, the understanding of good and evil, the existence of God, the soul, eternity). The worldview always appears in the form of either religion or philosophy, but not science. Philosophy in its subject and goals differs from science and constitutes a special form of human consciousness, not reducible to any other. Philosophy as a form of consciousness creates a worldview that humanity needs for all its practical and theoretical activities. The closest thing to philosophy in terms of social function is religion, which also arose as certain form worldview.

Religion is one of the forms of "spiritual production" of man. It has its own postulates (the existence of God, the immortality of the soul), a special method of cognition (spiritual and moral perfection of the individual), its own criteria for distinguishing truth from error (correspondence of individual spiritual experience to the unity of the experience of the saints), its goal (the knowledge of God and the attainment of the eternal in Him). life - adoration).

Religion and science are two fundamentally different areas of human life. They have different initial premises, different goals, objectives, methods. These spheres can touch, intersect, but not refute one another.

Philosophy is a theoretically formulated worldview. This is a system of the most general theoretical views on the world, the place of man in it, the understanding of various forms of man's relationship to the world. Philosophy differs from other forms of worldview not so much in its subject matter, but in the way it is comprehended, the degree of intellectual development of problems and methods of approach to them. Unlike mythological and religious traditions, philosophical thought has chosen as its guideline not blind, dogmatic faith, and not supernatural explanations, but free, critical reflection on the principles of reason about the world and human life. The main tasks of self-recognizing philosophical thought, starting from Socrates, are the search for a higher principle and meaning of life. The exclusivity and meaning of human life in the world, the philosophy of history and social philosophy, the problems of aesthetics and morality, the ideas of knowledge, death and immortality, the idea of ​​the soul, the problems of consciousness, the relationship of man to God, as well as the history of philosophy itself - these, in short, are the main problems of philosophical science, such is its substantive self-determination.

Historically, the following stages of the relationship between science and philosophy can be distinguished: natural-philosophical, positivist (30-40 years of the XIX century).

The transcendental (metaphysical) concept of the relationship between philosophy and science is represented by the formula - "philosophy is the science of sciences", "philosophy is the queen of sciences". It articulates the epistemological priority of philosophy as a more fundamental type of knowledge in comparison with specific sciences, the leading role of philosophy in relation to particular sciences, the self-sufficiency of philosophy in relation to particular scientific knowledge and the essential dependence of particular sciences on philosophy, the relativity and particularity of the truths of specific sciences. The transcendentalist concept was formed in the period of antiquity and existed as a universally recognized, and in fact the only one, until the middle of the 19th century. (Plato, Aristotle, Thomas Aquinas, Spinoza, Hegel).

The positivist concept of the relationship between science and philosophy (30s of the 19th century) is represented by such figures as O. Comte, G. Spencer, J. Mill, B. Russell, R. Carnap, L. Wittgenstein, and others. slogans: "Philosophy does not give anything concrete to the world, only specific sciences give us positive knowledge", "Science itself is philosophy", "Down with metaphysics, long live physics", "Philosophy deals with pseudo-problems that are associated with language games", "Science in itself is philosophy", "Down with metaphysics, long live physics", "Philosophy deals with pseudo-problems that are associated with language games", meaning a setting for complete self-sufficiency and independence of natural science from philosophy ("metaphysics"), traditionally understood in as a general theory of being and cognition. The positivist concept expressed the strengthening of the role of science in the European culture of modern times and the desire of science for ontological and methodological autonomy not only in relation to religion (which had already been basically achieved by the beginning of the 19th century), but also to philosophy. According to positivists, the benefits of a close connection between natural science and philosophy for science are problematic, and the harm is obvious. For natural science theories, the only, albeit not absolutely reliable, basis and criterion for their truth should be only the degree of their correspondence to the data of experience, the results of systematic observation and experiment.

Philosophy played a positive role in the development of science, contributed to the development of abstract (theoretical) thinking, general ideas and hypotheses about the structure of the world (atomism, evolution). Philosophy itself must now be built according to the laws of concrete scientific (positive) thinking. During the evolution of positivism to the role of " scientific philosophy"were put forward: 1) the general methodology of science as a result of empirical generalization, systematization and description of the real methods of various specific sciences (O. Comte); 2) the logic of science as the doctrine of methods for discovering and proving scientific truths (causal relationships) (J. St . Mill); 3) the general scientific picture of the world obtained by generalizing and integrating the knowledge of different sciences about nature (O. Spencer); 4) the psychology of scientific creativity (E. Mach); 5) the general theory of organization (A. Bogdanov); 6 ) logical analysis of the language of science by means of mathematical logic and logical semantics (R. Carnap and others), 7) theory of the development of science (K. Popper and others), 8) theory, technique and methodology of linguistic analysis (L. Wittgenstein, J. Ryle, J. Austin and others).

The anti-interactionist concept preaches dualism in the relationship between philosophy and science, their absolute cultural equality and sovereignty, the absence of interconnection and mutual influence between them in the process of functioning of these essential elements culture. The development of natural science and philosophy proceeds, as it were, in parallel courses and, on the whole, independently of each other. Supporters of the anti-interactionist concept (representatives of the philosophy of life, existentialist philosophy, philosophy of culture, etc.) believe that philosophy and natural science have their own, completely dissimilar objects and methods, excluding the very possibility of any significant influence of philosophy on the development of natural science and vice versa. Ultimately, they proceed from the idea of ​​dividing human culture into two different cultures: natural science (aimed mainly at performing the pragmatic, utilitarian functions of adaptation and survival of mankind through the growth of its material power) and humanitarian (aimed at increasing the spiritual potential of mankind, cultivating and improvement in each person of his spiritual component). Philosophy in this context refers to humanitarian culture along with art, religion, morality, history and other forms of human self-identification. A person's attitude to the world and his awareness of the meaning of his existence are not derived in any way from the knowledge of the surrounding world, but are set by a certain system of values, ideas about good and evil, significant and empty, about the holy, imperishable and perishable. The world of values ​​and reflection on this world, which has nothing to do with the existence and content of the physical world - this is the main subject of philosophy from the standpoint of anti-interactionists.

The dialectical concept, the development of which was promoted by Aristotle, R. Descartes, Spinoza, G. Hegel, I. Kant, B. Russell, A. Poincaré, I. Prigogine, is based on the assertion of an internal, necessary, essential relationship between natural science and philosophy, starting from the moment of their appearance and separation as independent subsystems within the framework of a single knowledge, as well as the dialectically contradictory mechanism of interaction between natural science and philosophical knowledge.

The proof of the internal, necessary connection between natural science and philosophy is found in the analysis of the possibilities and purpose of natural sciences, and more broadly - of specific sciences and philosophy, their subjects and the nature of the problems being solved. The subject matter of philosophy, especially theoretical philosophy, is the universal as such. The ideal universal is the goal and soul of philosophy. At the same time, philosophy proceeds from the possibility of comprehending this universal rationally - logically, in a non-empirical way. The subject of any particular science is a particular, individual, specific "piece" of the world, empirically and theoretically completely controlled, and therefore mastered practically.

The presence of philosophical foundations and philosophical problems in the fundamental sciences is empirical evidence of the real interaction between philosophy and specific sciences. Exist different kinds philosophical foundations of science - in accordance with the most important sections of philosophy: ontological, epistemological, logical, axiological, praxeological.

Questions for self-control:

• 1. Expand the content of the transcendental concept of the relationship between science and philosophy.
• 2. The content of the positivist concept of the relationship between philosophy and science.
• 3. The content of the dialectical concept of the relationship between philosophy and science.
• 4. The essence and content of the anti-interactionist concept.
• 5. Describe the philosophical foundations of science.
• 6. What is the difference between religion and science and philosophy?

1. The concept of science. Specificity of scientific knowledge. The role of science in society. Ethics of science and the problem of social responsibility of a scientist.

The science - this is a sphere of human activity aimed at the production and theoretical systematization of knowledge about nature, society and knowledge itself. IN this definition two characteristics of science are reflected - the activity of obtaining new knowledge and its result. However, the content of science does not end there. It acts as a social institution (a set of actions, relations, personnel, institutions and norms), a form of social consciousness and the productive force of society.

Before the era of the New Age, there were no conditions for the formation of science as a system of knowledge, a kind of spiritual phenomenon and social institution. Prior to this, there was only "pre-science", which combined applied knowledge with elements of magic, astrology and alchemy. As an integral organic system, science arose in the 16th-17th centuries, in the era of the formation of the capitalist mode of production. The development of industry required the knowledge of objective laws and their theoretical description. With the advent of Newtonian mechanics, science acquired a classical form: an interconnected system of applied and theoretical (fundamental) knowledge with access to practice. Reflecting the diversity of the world, science is divided into many branches of knowledge (private sciences), which differ from each other in what side of reality, the form of motion of matter they study. According to the subject and method of knowledge, one can single out the sciences of nature - natural science; society - social science (humanities, social sciences); cognition and thinking - logic and epistemology. Technical sciences and mathematics are separated into separate groups.

Patterns of the development of science. The main factors that determine the development of science are the development of man himself, his needs and, accordingly, production. At the same time, science develops according to its own laws. Among them - continuity(preservation of the positive content of old knowledge in new ones), alternation of relatively calm periods of development and periods of scientific revolutions, combination of differentiation processes(singling out all new scientific disciplines) and integration(synthesis of knowledge, combining the efforts of different sciences and their methods), expansion of mathematization and computerization processes, theorization of modern science, its accelerated development of science and its increasingly active role in all spheres of life etc.

In the course of scientific revolutions, paradigms (patterns) for explaining and describing research results in entire scientific fields - physics, biology - changed. At the same time, a phenomenon of a more global order was taking place - a change in the types of rationality of all science. Type of scientific rationality – these are the ideals of cognitive activity that prevail at a certain stage in the development of science, in other words, ideas about how to properly build the relationship “subject - means of research - object” in order to obtain objective truth. At different stages of the historical development of science, coming after scientific revolutions, its own type of scientific rationality dominated. The scientific revolutions described above correspond, according to V. S. Stepin, classical, non-classical, post-non-classical types of scientific rationality. The post-nonclassical type of rationality is an exit to the level of awareness of the fact that knowledge about an object correlates not only with the features of its interaction with the means (and, therefore, correlates with the subject using these means), but also with the value-target structures of the subject's activity. In other words, admits that the subject influences the content of knowledge about the object not only due to the use of special research tools and procedures, but also due to its value-target settings, which are directly related to extra-scientific, social values ​​and goals. Changing the types of rationality is a process of deepening the reflective work of thinking that accompanies cognitive activity. Its change and complication is due to both internal scientific reasons (accumulation of factors that cannot be explained within the framework of the existing scientific paradigm; discovery of new types of objects, associated, for example, with the improvement of instruments and methods of observation, the emergence of new mathematical methods, etc.), and non-scientific reasons (value and worldview guidelines and attitudes in the culture of a particular era).

The role of science. Modern science performs three main social functions: cultural and ideological, the direct productive forces of society, and the function of social transformation. A characteristic feature of modern social development is the ever stronger connection and interaction between science, technology and production, the ever deeper transformation of science into the direct productive force of society. At the same time, firstly, today science does not just follow the development of technology, but overtakes it, becoming the leading force in the progress of material production; secondly, if before science developed as an isolated social institution, today it permeates all spheres of social life and closely interacts with them; thirdly, science is increasingly focused not only on technology, but above all on the person himself, on the unlimited development of his intellect, his creative abilities, culture of thinking, on the creation of material and spiritual prerequisites for his comprehensive, holistic development.

The growing role of science and scientific knowledge in the modern world, the complexity and contradictions of this process gave rise to two opposite positions in its assessment - scientism and anti-scientism, which had already developed by the middle of the 20th century. Supporters of scientism (from the Latin scientia - science) argue that "science is above all" and it must be implemented in every possible way as a standard and absolute social value in all forms and types of human activity. By identifying science with natural-mathematical and technical knowledge, scientism believes that only with the help of science as understood (and science alone) can all social problems be solved. At the same time, the social sciences are belittled or completely denied as allegedly having no cognitive significance, and the humanistic essence of science as such is rejected.

In defiance of scientism, anti-scientism arose - a philosophical and ideological position, the supporters of which are sharply criticized: science and technology, which, in their opinion, are not able to ensure social progress, improve people's lives. Proceeding from the really occurring negative consequences of scientific and technological revolution, anti-scientism in its extreme forms generally rejects science and technology, considering them to be forces hostile and alien to the true essence of man, destroying culture.

Undoubtedly, both positions in relation to science contain a number of rational points, the synthesis of which will make it possible to more accurately determine its place and role in the modern world. At the same time, it is equally wrong to both exorbitantly absolutize science and underestimate, and even more so completely reject it. It is necessary to treat science objectively and comprehensively, to see the contradictions in the process of its development.

In the modern world, there is an acute contradiction between the recognized high status of science and esoteric ideas widespread in the mass consciousness (passion for divination, magic, astrology, parapsychology, mysticism, the so-called "occult sciences", etc.). Research carried out at the forefront of science is very difficult to explain to the general public, in addition, science (like philosophy) uses high abstractions and a language of terms that is inaccessible to everyday consciousness. The disadvantage is the weak popularization of scientific ideas. As a result, the mind loses its positions, giving way to extra-scientific knowledge and outright charlatans. On the other hand, while respecting “big science” and its colossal possibilities, the postpositivist Paul Feyerabend nevertheless recommends “putting science in its place” as an interesting, but by no means the only form of cognition that has great advantages, but is not without and many shortcomings. Precisely because science has become too influential in our time, it is very dangerous to leave it in a "state of infallibility", to absolutize its role in society. A fruitful exchange between science and other non-scientific worldviews is needed in the interests of the whole culture as a whole.

Ethical norms and values ​​of science. In science, as in any field of human activity, the relationship between those who are involved in it, and the actions of each of them are subject to a certain system of ethical norms that determine what is permissible, what is encouraged, and what is considered impermissible and unacceptable for a scientist in various situations. . These norms arise and develop in the course of the development of science itself, being the result of a kind of "historical selection".

In the norms of scientific ethics, firstly, universal moral requirements and prohibitions are embodied, such as, for example, “do not steal”, “do not lie”, adapted, of course, to the peculiarities of scientific activity. Let's say how something similar to theft is assessed in science as plagiarism, when a person gives out scientific ideas, results obtained by someone else, as his own; a lie is a deliberate distortion (falsification) of the experimental data.

Secondly, the ethical norms of science serve to affirm and protect specific values ​​that are specific to science. The first among them is the selfless search and upholding of the truth. For example, Aristotle’s dictum is widely known: “Plato is my friend, but the truth is dearer,” the meaning of which is that in striving for truth, a scientist should not take into account either his likes and dislikes, or any other attendant circumstances. The history of science gratefully honors the names of ascetics (such as J. Bruno) who did not renounce their beliefs in the face of death itself. For examples, however, it is not necessary to delve into distant history. It is enough to recall the words of the Russian biologist N.I. Vavilov: "We will go to the cross, but we will not give up our convictions", who justified these words with his own tragic fate...

Thirdly, the ethical norms of science require that the result be new and sufficiently substantiated knowledge. To do this, a scientist must: know well everything that has been done and is being done in his field of science; when publishing the results of his research, clearly indicate what research of his predecessors and colleagues he relied on, and it is against this background to show what is new that is open and developed by him. In addition, in the publication, the scientist must provide the evidence and arguments with which he substantiates his results; at the same time, he is obliged to provide comprehensive information that allows an independent verification of its results.

In modern science, issues relating not so much to the norms of interaction within the scientific community as to the relationship of science and the scientist with society have become particularly acute. This range of questions is often referred to as the problem of social responsibility of a scientist.

2. Specificity of scientific knowledge. Empirical, theoretical and meta-theoretical levels of scientific knowledge.

In addition to scientific, there are other forms of knowledge - everyday, philosophical, religious, artistic-figurative, playful, esoteric ("secret"). What does it consist specificity of scientific knowledge?

1. The main task of scientific knowledge is the discovery of objective laws of reality. Hence - the orientation of the study mainly on the general, essential properties of objects and expression of knowledge in an abstract theoretical form. The very concept of scientificity involves the discovery of laws and the development of theories.

2. The immediate goal and highest value of scientific knowledge is objective truth. Hence the characteristic feature of scientific knowledge is objectivity, the elimination or special consideration of subjective moments that are not inherent in the subject of research.

3. Science, to a greater extent than other forms of knowledge, is focused on being embodied in practice, being a “guide to action” to change the surrounding reality and control real processes.

4. In the process of scientific knowledge, such means as devices, instruments, and other scientific equipment are used. In addition, science, to a greater extent than other forms of cognition, is characterized by the use of such spiritual means and methods as logic, dialectics, systemic, cybernetic, synergistic and other approaches to study its objects and itself.

5. Scientific knowledge is characterized by strict evidence, the validity of the results obtained, the reliability of the conclusions. At the same time, there are many hypotheses, conjectures, assumptions, probabilistic judgments, etc. That is why the logical and methodological training of researchers, their philosophical culture, the constant improvement of their thinking, the ability to correctly apply its laws and principles are of paramount importance here.

6. In addition to the previously mentioned features, there are also criteria for scientific character: internal consistency of knowledge, its formal consistency, experimental verifiability, reproducibility, openness to criticism, freedom from bias, rigor, etc. In other forms of cognition, the considered criteria may take place (to a different extent), but there they are not decisive.

Taken as a whole, scientific knowledge includes three main levels (forms): empirical, theoretical and metatheoretical. Although they are related, but each has its own specifics. What is it?

At the empirical level direct (without intermediate links) living contemplation prevails; the rational moment and its forms (judgments, concepts, etc.) are present here, but have a subordinate meaning. Therefore, the object under study is reflected mainly from the side of its external relations and manifestations. The collection of facts, their primary generalization, the description of observed and experimental data, their systematization are characteristic features of empirical knowledge.

Theoretical level scientific knowledge is characterized by the predominance of the rational moment and its forms (concepts, theories, laws and other aspects of thinking). Living contemplation, sensory cognition is not eliminated here, but becomes a subordinate aspect of the cognitive process. On the basis of empirical data, there is a generalization of the objects under study, the comprehension of their essence and patterns, which constitute the main content of the theories.

The third level of scientific knowledge - metatheoretical foundations of science("meta" in ancient Greek - after). This is a kind of archive of the most general principles and ideas accumulated by mankind, to which a scientist turns for ideas. For example, K. Marx is considered one of the founders of sociological science, but his laws of social development are based on the ideas of Hegel's philosophy. The metatheoretical foundations of science include several components. Chief among them: ideals and methods of research(ideas about the goals of scientific activity and ways to achieve them); scientific picture of the world(a holistic system of ideas about the world, its general properties and patterns, formed on the basis of scientific concepts and laws); philosophical ideas and principles that substantiate the goals, methods, norms and ideals of scientific research.

Many features of the philosophical foundations of post-non-classical science are expressed in postmodern philosophy. It is recognized that the subject influences the content of knowledge about the object not only due to the use of special research tools and procedures, but also due to its value-target settings, which are directly related to extra-scientific, social values ​​and goals. In the postclassic, social life, its values ​​and goals are recognized as components of scientific knowledge about the object.

3. The concept of method and methodology. General logical, empirical and theoretical methods of scientific research.

Each of the forms of scientific knowledge uses its own methods(a method is a set of actions, techniques and operations that contribute to the achievement of a result).Methodology- the doctrine of the methods of cognition, the structure and dynamics of scientific knowledge.

Methods of empirical research : With alignment, observation, description, measurement, experiment when an object is reproduced in artificially created and controlled conditions (including mentally), analysis- division of the object into its component parts, induction- the movement of knowledge from the particular to the general, analogy and etc.

Methods of theoretical knowledge : A abstraction(distraction from a number of properties and relations of objects), idealization(the process of creating purely mental objects such as "points", "ideal gas"), synthesis- combining the elements obtained as a result of the analysis into a system, deduction- the movement of knowledge from the general to the particular, modeling, formalization, axiomatic and hypothetical-deductive methods for constructing scientific theories Empirical and theoretical levels of cognition are interconnected, the boundary between them is conditional and mobile.

According to the degree of generality, the methods of scientific knowledge can be divided into groups:

1) philosophical methods, among which an important role is played by dialectics, metaphysics, phenomenology, hermeneutics, etc.;

2) general scientific approaches and research methods - systemic, structural-functional, cybernetic, probabilistic, synergistic, as well as the previously listed methods of empirical and theoretical knowledge (logical methods and techniques are often separated into a separate group);

3) private scientific methods, i.e. a set of methods, principles of cognition, research techniques and procedures used in a particular branch of science corresponding to one of the main forms of the movement of matter (mechanics, physics, chemistry, biology, social science);

4) intradisciplinary methods (methods and techniques of individual disciplines);

5) methods of interdisciplinary research.

Modern science is characterized by methodological reflection, i.e. constant understanding of the conditions and possibilities of applying methods, taking into account the dependence of the result on research methods; these problems are dealt with by a separate scientific and philosophical discipline - the logic and methodology of science.

Philosophy and logic are developing logical forms of development of scientific knowledge. These include:

1) fAct- the main form of empirical knowledge, knowledge, the truth of which is determined directly by the results of observation and experiment;

2)problem- a search form of scientific knowledge (a question that arises in the course of cognition or an integral set of questions), through which the achieved level of knowledge of an object is fixed and the direction of further research is determined;

3)hypothesis- a scientific assumption or assumption, the probability of which is justified by actual data, taking into account the already known patterns inherent in the object;

4)theory- the most systemic form of scientific knowledge, containing a set of laws of a certain sphere of reality.

Philosophy influences scientific knowledge at all its stages, but to the highest extent - in the construction of theories (especially fundamental ones). This happens most actively during periods of sharp break-up of concepts and principles in the course of scientific revolutions. The impact of universal philosophical principles on the process of scientific research is carried out not directly and directly, but in a complex indirect way - through the methods, forms and concepts of the underlying methodological levels. Philosophical methods do not always make themselves felt in the process of research in an explicit form, they can be taken into account and applied either spontaneously or consciously. But in any science there are elements of universal knowledge - laws, categories, concepts, the principle of causality, etc. Philosophy develops universal pictures of the world, models of reality, through the prism of which the scientist looks at the subject of research, chooses general cognitive means, certain worldview and value attitudes (especially in the humanities), is armed with knowledge of the general laws of the process of cognition itself, the doctrine of truth and ways to achieve it. about the need to overcome delusions. Philosophy exerts a significant influence on the development of scientific knowledge by its prognostic function. We are talking about the fact that in every era ideas, principles and ideas are developed, the significance of which is revealed only at future stages of the evolution of knowledge in hundreds or even thousands of years. Such, in particular, were the ideas of ancient atomism, the Hegelian apparatus of dialectics, which anticipated certain provisions of synergetics. The implementation of philosophical principles in scientific knowledge means at the same time their rethinking, deepening. As a result, philosophy itself develops.

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