The historical role of Peter I. The reform of public administration of Peter I

STATE AUTONOMOUS EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTION

SARATOV REGION

"BALASHOV TECHNICIUM OF AGRICULTURAL MECHANIZATION"

ESSAY

ON THE HISTORY ON THE TOPIC:

"ROLE OF THE PERSONALITY OF PETER I. IN THE HISTORY OF RUSSIA"

PREPARED:

BORODKIN S. GROUP E-11

SUPERVISOR:

LABODINA SVETLANA VIKTOROVNA

BALASHOV 2014

Introduction

The role of a historical personality is precisely this person-- it is an accident. The need for this advancement is determined by the historically established need of society for a person of this kind to take the leading place. N.M. Karamzin said this about Peter the Great: “The people gathered on a campaign, waited for the leader, and the leader appeared!” The fact that this particular person is born in this country, at a certain time, is pure coincidence. But if we eliminate this person, then there is a demand for his replacement, and such a replacement will be found.

Peter I has been described by many historians as an outstanding political figure, a bright personality, a fair and democratic tsar, whose reign was so eventful and contradictory that it was the reason for the existence of a mass of scientific, popular science and fiction on this topic.

AT historical science and in public opinion from the end of the 17th century to the present, there are diametrically opposed assessments of both the personality of Peter I and his role in the history of Russia. In the official Russian historiography, Peter was considered to be one of the most prominent statesmen who determined the direction of Russia's development in the 18th century. However, many historians, including N.M. Karamzin, V.O. Klyuchevsky and others expressed sharply critical assessments.

Chapter 1

Personality is a set of social and cultural properties of a person, which depend on his inclusion in the system of social relations through his activities and communication. The concept of "personality" helps to characterize in a person the social beginning of his life, those properties and qualities that a person realizes in social relations, social institutions, culture, i.e. in social life, in the process of interaction with other people. The concept of "personality" characterizes the social position, place and role of the individual in the system of social relations.

Social roles are forms of manifestation and development of the individual, occupying a certain status in society. The role of the most outstanding person is always a fusion of previous development, a mass of random and non-random events, and her own characteristics. Depending on a variety of conditions and circumstances, taking into account the characteristics of the place under study, time and individual personality traits of her historical role can range from the most inconspicuous to the largest. Sometimes personality plays a decisive role.

At the moment we are interested in outstanding historical figures. What is their role?

An outstanding personality solves the tasks set in the queue by the previous course of the intellectual development of society, he indicates the new social needs created by the previous development of social relations, and takes the initiative to satisfy these needs. This is the strength and destiny of a great man, and the power is colossal.Of course, an outstanding personality should not have ordinary abilities for a certain type or series of activities. But this is not enough. It is necessary that in the course of its development society put on the agenda tasks for the solution of which a person with precisely such (military, political, etc.) abilities was needed.

World-historical personalities are not only practical and political figures, but also thinking people, spiritual leaders who understand what is needed and what is timely, and lead others, the masses. These people, albeit intuitively, but feel, understand the historical necessity and therefore, it would seem, should be free in this sense in their actions and deeds.

Throughout the history of mankind, a huge number of events have occurred, and they have always been directed by individuals who are different in their moral character and mind. The unity of the people, however, requires an obvious spiritual and volitional embodiment - a single center, a person, an outstanding person in mind and experience, expressing the legal will and state spirit of the people. The people need a wise leader, like dry land needs good rain.

Chapter 2

On May 30 (June 9, according to the new style), 1672, Moscow resounded with bells, which were interspersed with cannon volleys from the Kremlin towers - Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich and Tsarina Natalia Kirillovna, nee Naryshkina, had a son, Peter. Finally, the Romanov dynasty could count on a healthy and energetic heir to the throne.

The early childhood of the prince passed in a European home and its unique atmosphere, which later helped Peter to be among foreigners without prejudice and gain useful experience from them.However, when it was necessary to move from games to compulsory education for Moscow princes, Peter was less fortunate. The teacher of Russian literature was Nikita Moiseevich Zotov, not very literate, but patient and affectionate clerk of the Great Parish.

The prince studied everything willingly, and subsequently wrote fluently in Old Church Slavonic, albeit with numerous errors. On the other hand, his natural tenacious memory until his death allowed him to quote the Book of Hours and the verses of the Psalter and even sing in church "on hooks", which replaced Russian musical signs. And although, having become emperor, Peter I repeatedly stated that there was nothing instructive in Russian antiquity, his historical knowledge was diverse and deep. And he knew so many folk proverbs, sayings and sayings and always used them to the point with such wit that he never tired of astonishing all European monarchs.

At the age of three, he already gave orders to the Butyrsky Reiter Regiment of the "new system" at the royal review, which pleasantly surprised Alexei Mikhailovich and aroused the enmity of his brother Fyodor Miloslavsky and his sister, Princess Sophia.

Shortly after the death of Alexei Mikhailovich, Tsarina Natalya and her son were expelled from the Kremlin by the new Tsar Fyodor Alekseevich, who hated his stepmother and her uncle "Anglican". Nikita Zotov was going to voluntarily follow the pupil into the wilderness near Moscow, but he was ordered to be caught and executed. The disgraced podyachem had to flee from Moscow to the Crimea and hide for many years. Now Peter had no one to study with, and the Moscow outskirts became his school.

So Peter grew up - strong and hardy, not afraid of any physical work. Palace intrigues developed in him secrecy and the ability to hide his true feelings and intentions. He now had to study in secret. Knowing the Kremlin mores, Peter so lulled the vigilance of all his enemies in the Kremlin. Subsequently, this helped him become an outstanding diplomat.

When, on April 28, 1682, ten-year-old Peter was solemnly crowned king, foreign diplomats unanimously noted that he produced the impression of a 16-year-old youth in speech, education, and posture. Tsarevna Sophia immediately intuitively felt threatened by her brother and, with the help of Prince Khovansky, raised the archers to a rebellion, which received the ominous name "Khovanshchina" among the people. The day of May 25, when before his eyes the beloved uncle Matveev was raised to the peaks by archers, became the most terrible impression of Peter's childhood, and the red color irritated him.

If Peter did not have any specific plans for the transformation of the country, after the "Khovanshchina" they certainly appeared. It was possible to break the main support of Sophia - the archers, only by opposing them with a military force capable of defeating them.

In 1686, 14-year-old Peter started artillery with his "amusing" ones. The gunsmith Fyodor Sommer showed the tsar grenade and firearms. 16 guns were delivered from the Pushkar Order. To control heavy guns, the tsar took adult servants eager for military affairs from the Stable Order. The amusing regiment began to be called Preobrazhensky, in the place of its quartering - the village of Preobrazhenskoye near Moscow.

In 1688 he founded the first shipyard for the construction of ships.There were already two "amusing" regiments: Semyonovsky, located in the village of Semyonovskoye, was added to Preobrazhensky. Preshburg already looked like a real fortress. Knowledgeable and experienced people were needed to command regiments and study military science. But among the Russian courtiers there were none. So Peter appeared in the German settlement.

Peter's activity greatly disturbed Princess Sophia, who understood that with the onset of adulthood stepbrother she will have to give up power.

And in 1689, Peter married Evdokia Lopukhina, considering him to be of age, he did not need guardianship. In the same year, on August 27, a letter from Tsar Peter came - to go to all regiments to the Trinity. Most of the troops obeyed the legitimate king, and Princess Sophia had to admit defeat. She herself went to the Trinity Monastery, but in the village of Vozdvizhenskoye she was met by Peter's envoys with orders to return to Moscow. Soon Sophia was imprisoned in the Novodevichy Convent under strict supervision. Princess Sophia was tonsured a nun under the name of Susanna and sent to the Novodevichy Convent, where she spent the rest of her life. The same fate befell Peter's unloved wife, Evdokia Lopukhina, who was forcibly sent to the Suzdal Monastery even against the will of the clergy.

The priority of Peter I in the first years of autocracy was the continuation of the war with the Ottoman Empire and the Crimea. Instead of campaigns against the Crimea, undertaken during the reign of Princess Sophia, Peter I decided to strike at the Turkish fortress of Azov, located at the confluence of the Don River into the Sea of ​​Azov.In the winter and spring of 1695, transport ships were built on the Don. And in the spring, the Russian army won two fortresses from the Turks, and at the end of June besieged Azov (a fortress at the mouth of the Don).The preparation of campaigns clearly showed Peter's organizational and strategic abilities. For the first time, such important qualities as his ability to draw conclusions from failures and gather strength for a second strike appeared. In addition to negotiations, Peter devoted a lot of time to the study of shipbuilding, military affairs and other sciences. Peter worked as a carpenter at the shipyards of the East India Company, with the participation of the king, the ship "Peter and Paul" was built.

During the 15 months of his stay abroad, Peter saw a lot and learned a lot. After the return of the tsar on August 25, 1698, his reforming activity began, initially aimed at changing the external signs that distinguish the Old Slavonic way of life from the Western European one. In the Transfiguration Palace, Peter suddenly began to cut the beards of the nobles, and already on August 29, 1698, the famous decree “On wearing a German dress, on shaving beards and mustaches, on walking schismatics in the attire indicated for them” was issued, which banned from September 1 wearing beards. The new 7208th year according to the Russian-Byzantine calendar (“from the creation of the world”) became the 1700th year according to the Julian calendar. Peter also introduced the celebration of January 1 of the New Year, and not on the day of the autumn equinox, as was celebrated earlier.

In order for the development of trade in Russia to be in full swing, our country needed access to the Baltic Sea. Realizing this, Peter 1 began to conduct military operations with Sweden - this became a new stage in his reign. Then he makes peace with Turkey, and after the capture of the Noteburg fortress, he begins the construction of the city of St. Petersburg.

All internal state activity Peter can be conditionally divided into two periods: 1695-1715 and 1715-1725.The peculiarity of the first stage was the haste and not always thoughtful nature, which was explained by the conduct Northern war. The reforms were aimed primarily at raising funds for the war, were carried out by force and often did not lead to the desired result. Except government reforms at the first stage, extensive reforms were carried out with the aim of modernizing the way of life. In the second period, the reforms were more systematic.

Peter was clearly aware of the need for enlightenment, and took a number of drastic measures to this end.New printers were createdthere were changes in the Russian language, which included 4.5 thousand new words borrowed from European languages.

Peter tried to change the position of women in Russian society. He by special decrees (1700, 1702 and 1724) forbade forced marriage and marriage.

The battle of Poltava in June 1709 puts a victorious point in the war with Sweden. After the death of the king of this country, a peace treaty was concluded between Russia and Sweden. The Russians received the desired access to the Baltic Sea, as well as new lands.

In 1721, a decree followed, which stated that although previously "merchant people" were forbidden to buy villages, now many of them wished to start various manufactories both in companies and one by one.After this decree, all factories quickly acquired serf workers, and the factory owners liked it so much that they began to seek assignment to the factories and free workers who worked for them in free employment.

The title of emperor was awarded to Peter 1 in 1721. But in the last years of his reign, Peter was very ill, as a result of which he died. His personality, without a doubt, was one of the most powerful and significant in world history. He wanted to change both people and the state itself, and he succeeded in this to the fullest.

Conclusion

Peter 1 is perhaps the most famous of all the rulers of Russia. He was blunt, rude and did not like the observance of etiquette. (An example of his rudeness: one of the associates annoyed Peter so much that he drew his sword and began to wave it in all directions, as a result he chopped off his fingers, and hit the other’s head)

In my opinion, his manner of communicating with people has no justification. “He was aware that he is an absolute monarch, and everything that he does and says is not subject to human judgment; only God will ask him for everything, both good and bad ...” “Everything trembled, everything silently obeyed,” summed up A. WITH. Pushkin is the essence of the nature of Peter I as a sovereign and a person.

However, despite all this, he made a big push for Russia forward. Peter's policy was aimed at elevating the nobility. First, he founded the Russian fleet (1696), and showed the achievements (of the fleet) in the Northern War of 1700-1721. Peter1 personally participated in many battles: the battle of Narva (personally led the siege), the defeat of the Swedish ships near Arkhangelsk (sea battle). The reforms of Peter the Great (tax reform, Guberzhskaya reform, the omnipresence of which governors-general appeared) also acquired considerable importance.

In terms of the scale of interests and the ability to see the main thing in the problem, it is difficult for Peter I to find an equal in Russian history. Woven from contradictions, the emperor was a match for his huge power, which he, like a giant ship, led out of a quiet harbor into the oceans, pushing aside mud and stumps and chopping off growths on board.

Such was Peter I. This is how history left him to us. You can admire him, you can condemn him, but it cannot be denied that without Peter, this truly strong personality, Russia would be completely different - whether it is better or worse, we will never know.

Literature

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4. Kapitsa F.S., Grigoriev V.A., Novikova E.P., Dolgova G.P.. Schoolchildren's Handbook. The history of homeland. M.: 1996
5. Dolutsky I.I. National history. XX century: Textbook for grades 10-11 of educational institutions / I.I. Dolutsky. - M.: Mnemosyne, 2001.
6. Pavlenko N.I. “Peter I and his time”, M., Publishing house “Enlightenment”, 1989.
7. Solovyov S.M. “Readings and stories on the history of Russia”, M., Pravda Publishing House, 1989.
8. Yurganov A.L., Katsva L.A. History of Russia in the 16th - 18th centuries: A textbook for the 8th grade of secondary educational institutions. M.: - MIROS, VENTANA-GRAF, 1995. - 424 p.: ill.
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10. http://revolution.allbest.ru/

The role of Peter I in the history of Russia is difficult to overestimate. He is considered a great reformer, a reformer. The result of his work was a new form of government - an absolute monarchy and the creation of a noble and bureaucratic apparatus, which radically changed the course of Russian history. Military, judicial reforms allowed Russia to become on an equal footing with the developed countries of Europe, led to a significant increase in the country's territory. Each state exists at the expense of the economy, the level of formation of productive forces. A huge leap in this direction moved the state to a new stage of development.

Prerequisites for reforms in Russia

During the reign of Tsar Peter I, the reforms affected all areas of the life of the Russian state. They were predetermined by the preconditions of the 17th century. The activities of Peter, who introduced the country to European culture, economy, state structure, production technologies, led to a painful breakdown of existing relations, ideas and norms that existed in Muscovite Russia.

Thanks to the reform, the role of Peter I in the history of Russia becomes simply enormous. The country became a power that played an important role in the political life of Europe. The need for reforms is ripe in literally all spheres of life.

Peter I was well aware that reforms in any one area would not give the desired result. This was shown by the experience of previous rulers. Difficult events within the country required new forms of state government. The long Northern War required reforms not only of the army and navy, but also of industry, especially metallurgy. What did Peter 1 do for the development of Russia?

Absolute monarchy

The absolute monarchy in Russia was called autocracy. Ivan III, Ivan IV (the Terrible), as well as Alexei Mikhailovich, tried to come to this form of state government. To some extent, they succeeded. But the main obstacle in their way was a representative body - the boyar duma. They could not remove it from the political arena and were forced to reckon with the owners of large estates, who enjoyed influence in their possessions. Only Tsar Peter I succeeded in this.

It often happened that large and well-born boyars were supported by their smaller relatives, forming warring groups in the Duma. From early childhood, Peter experienced this firsthand as a result of the intrigues of the boyars Miloslavsky, relatives of the first wife of Alexei Mikhailovich and the Naryshkins, relatives of his mother, the second wife of Alexei Mikhailovich. It was the state reforms of Peter I that were able to bring many transformations to life.

In the struggle for centralized power, he was supported by the nobility, the class of service people who received the title not by inheritance, but for length of service or zeal in work. It was these people who were the support of Peter during the reforms. For the development of Russia, the boyar clans and their strife served as a brake.

The establishment of autocracy was possible with the centralization of the state, by uniting all the lands, reducing the influence of the old aristocracy on the king, which became possible through the elimination of the boyar duma and zemstvo councils. As a result of this reform, Russia received autocracy (absolutism, unlimited monarchy). And Peter I went down in history as the last tsar of Russia and the first emperor of the Russian state.

Nobility and bureaucracy

In the pre-Petrine era, the ruling group consisted of secular feudal lords - the boyars, endowed with estates; nobles who owned estates. The border between the two classes was steadily shrinking. Often the estates exceeded the estates in size, the number of nobles grew due to the granting of titles to service people. New under Peter I was the creation of a noble-bureaucratic apparatus.

Before Peter I, the main distinguishing feature that separated the representatives of these estates was the inheritance of lands, which was assigned to the boyars forever, and after the death of a nobleman, his relatives could only claim a small content. What did Peter I do? He simply secured the land for the nobles with a mandatory 25-year public service.

It was the nobles who became the support of the sovereigns, due to established traditions, they were forced to serve in the service - both civilian and military. This class was interested in centralized power, in strengthening the autocracy. The Time of Troubles (seven boyars) showed the unreliability of the boyar class.

Registration of the nobility

When carrying out state reforms, Peter I formed a new hierarchy of service people, who began to be called officials. It was issued by the Table of Ranks of 1722, where all ranks: military, civil and courtiers are divided into 14 classes. The former included Field Marshal General, Admiral General and Chancellor. The last, 14th, included the lower ranks - such as collegiate registrars, ensigns, junior pharmacists, accountants, skippers of the 2nd rank and others.

In the beginning, each rank corresponded to the position occupied by the official. Privy advisers served in the Privy Chancellery, collegiate advisers were listed in colleges. Subsequently, the rank did not always correspond to the position held. For example, after the abolition of colleges, the rank of collegiate adviser remained.

The advantage of military ranks over civilians

Peter I paid all attention to the army, as well as to the fleet. He was well aware that without her the country would not be able to defend its interests. Therefore, the interests of military servants prevailed over the interests of civil servants. So, for example, a title of nobility was given to civilians from the 8th grade, to the military - from the 14th. The ranks in the guards were 2 classes higher than in the army.

Each nobleman was obliged to carry out public service - civil or military. The sons of the nobles, who reached the age of 20, were required to serve 25 years in any service: military, naval, civil. The offspring of the nobles entered the military service at the age of 15 and served in the early stages as soldiers. The sons of high-ranking officials were in soldier positions in the guard.

Clergy

In the hierarchy of estates in Russia, after the nobility came the clergy. Orthodoxy was the main religion of the state. Church officials had a large number of privileges, which, in principle, Tsar Peter I left for them. The clergy were exempted from various taxes and public service. The sovereign reduced the number of monks, considering them parasites, and determined that a man of mature age who could live without a wife could become a monk.

The dissatisfaction and sometimes opposition of the Russian Orthodox Church to all the reforms of Peter I, its undoubted authority among the people, led him to the conclusion to carry out preventive reforms, which, according to him, would not allow a new impostor to grow out of its ranks. To do this, he proclaims the subordination of the church to the monarch. In 1701, the Monastic Order was formed, which included all monasteries with lands.

Military reform

The main concern of Peter I was the army and navy. Having dispersed the archers, he practically left the country without an army, and there was no fleet in it either. His dream was access to the Baltic Sea. The Narva defeat, which showed the backwardness of the army, was a powerful incentive for military reforms. Peter I understood that the Russian economy could not provide high-quality weapons and equipment. There were not enough plants, factories. There was no technology. Everything had to start over.

Back in 1694, while carrying out the Kozhukhov maneuvers, the future emperor came to the conclusion that the regiments, arranged according to a foreign model, were much superior to the streltsy units. Therefore, after 4 years they were dissolved. Instead, the army consisted of four regiments, created according to the Western model: Semenovsky, Lefortovsky, Preobrazhensky, Butyrsky. They served as the basis of the new Russian army. In 1699, on his orders, a recruitment was announced. The recruits were trained. Along with this, a large number of foreign officers came to the army.

There was a victory in the Northern War. She showed the combat readiness of the Russian army. Instead of the militia, regular and well-trained regiments were formed, which were completely supported by the state. Peter I left behind a combat-ready army that was able to repulse any enemy.

Creation of the navy by Peter I

The first Russian fleet, created by Peter I, took part in the Azov campaign. It consisted of 2 battleships, 4 firewalls, 23 galley ships and 1300 plows. All of them were built under the leadership of the king on the Voronezh River. It was the basis of the Russian fleet. After the fortress of Azov was captured, the boyar duma approved the decision of Peter I to build ships for the Baltic.

Shipyards were erected on the estuaries of the Olonka, Luga and Syas rivers, where galleys were built. Sailboats were purchased and built to protect the coast and attack enemy ships. They were based near St. Petersburg, a little later a base was built in Kronstadt. The next bases were in Vyborg, Abo, Reval and Helsingfors. The fleet was controlled by the Admiralty order.

Education reform

Education under Peter I made a grand leap. The army and navy needed educated commanders. On the issue of education, Peter I took a decisive position, realizing that foreign specialists would not be able to solve the problem of a shortage of qualified personnel. Therefore, a school of navigational and mathematical sciences and a number of other schools, such as artillery, medical, and engineering, are being opened in Moscow.

Education under Peter I after the army was a priority. AT new capital Maritime Academy opened. Mining schools were organized at the Ural and Olonets plants, which trained engineers. A project was created to create an Academy of Sciences, a university and a gymnasium.

Economic transformation

In the Russian economy, the reorientation from small industrial enterprises to manufactories has become new. Their total number was over two hundred. The autocrat encouraged their creation in every possible way. It should be immediately noted that the Russian manufactory differed from the European one in that the main productive force there were peasants on it.

Manufactories were state-owned, landlord and merchant. They produced gunpowder, saltpeter, cloth, glass, linen, metal and metal products, and much more. In terms of metal production, Russia began to take first place in the world.

To support Russian producers, high customs duties were introduced. To wage war, money and manpower were needed. Censuses are being carried out. The tax was now collected from the male population, regardless of age. Its size was 70 kopecks per year per soul. This made it possible to increase the collection of taxes four times.

Cheap labor made goods competitive in European markets. There was an accumulation of capital, which made it possible to modernize enterprises. In Russia there was a diversified industry. Its main centers were located in Moscow, St. Petersburg, in the Urals.

Consequences of the reforms

Scientists are still arguing about the role of Peter I in the history of Russia. His reforms were spontaneous in nature, marked during the long Northern War, which revealed Russia's backwardness in many areas of life. The economic and technical lag behind the developed countries of Europe was overcome, access to the Baltic was opened, which made trade with Europe more accessible and profitable.

The role of Peter I in the history of Russia is perceived by many historians ambiguously. The strengthening of Russia as a state, the strengthening of absolutism in the form of autocracy, the economic breakthrough put Russia on a par with the countries of Europe. But how was it done! According to the historian Klyuchevsky, the absolute monarchy, which wanted to drag its subjects into modernity from the Middle Ages, contained a fundamental contradiction. It was expressed in a series of palace coups later.

The autocracy cruelly exploited the peasants, turning them practically into slaves. Over 40 thousand peasants, cut off from their homes and families, worked on the construction of St. Petersburg. The families of those who escaped from this hard labor were taken into custody until they were found. Peasants built factories, bridges, manufactories, roads. Their conditions were appalling. Recruitment was carried out from the peasants, their duties periodically increased. The entire burden of reforms fell on the shoulders of the people.

1. Birth of Peter

2.Entry to the throne

3. Access to the sea

4.War with Sweden

5. Reforms of Peter

6.Emperor's death

Birth of Peter

On May 30, 1672, a significant event took place in Russia: another son was born to the Russian Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich. His name was given to Peter. Then no one could have guessed his role in the history of Russia. Despite the fact that Peter was the youngest in the family, he was the "hope" of the dynasty from the very beginning. Peter's older brother Alexei was not interested in running the state. In addition, his health caused serious concern. In addition to Alexei, Peter had two more brothers from the first marriage of "The Quietest", but they were not considered as contenders for a long reign due to poor health.

Until the age of two and a half, little Peter was surrounded by nurses. But already by this age his interests were determined. In the bedroom of the future emperor there were always toy horses, cannons, banners, pistols and other items of ammunition and weapons. Already at this age, Peter acquires friends who later became the backbone of his throne.

On April 27, 1976, Alexei Mikhailovich died and his eldest son from his first marriage, Fedor Alekseevich, ascended the throne. Friends and relatives of the new king treated Peter and his mother with hostility due to the fact that before that Peter was prophesied as the only heir to the throne. But the little boy did not care about palace intrigues. He felt changes only in 1679, when two uncles were assigned to him to educate and comprehend the sciences. But this change was not connected with a change in his role in the Kremlin.

Fyodor Alekseevich, as expected, did not last long. He died April 27, 1682. At the Zemsky Sobor, it was decided to transfer power into the hands of Peter. But here the young princess Sophia entered the stage. She decided to oppose Peter's candidacy to his half-brother Ivan. Under his cover, she could safely rule the country. She chose archers as the acting force. On May 15, the archers went to the Kremlin. The reason was the rumor that Ivan had been strangled. The archers who had calmed down, to whom both princes were presented, were scolded by Mikhail Dolgoruky. This cry cost the lives not only of Dolgoruky, but also of many other friends of the Naryshkins who stood behind Peter. All the massacre took place in front of the princes. It was from then on that Peter began to hate the archers and Princess Sophia. Later, he took revenge on her in full. The Streltsy rebellion, started by Sophia, was also suppressed by her. Power was firmly in her hands. Ivan was placed on the throne. Peter and his mother were honorably expelled from the Kremlin.

But little Peter wasted no time. In the course of his fun, he formed two regiments, Preobrazhensky and Semenovsky, radically different from the archery troops, which then formed the basis of the army. While in exile in Preobrazhensky, Peter was intensively engaged in science. True, he wrote until the end of his life in such a way that it was difficult to read. Yes, and then read then it was necessary to understand. But on the other hand, having met with the Germans, he studied mathematics, geometry, and fortification. Being in disgrace, Peter learned printing and the art of a bricklayer. This education was very different from what the kings were usually taught - piitik and rhetoric.

The main occupation of Peter in Preobrazhensky was military "fun". People in his "amusing" regiments were recruited both from old noble families, and from among the grooms and other guys assigned to Peter. Often people were sent by Princess Sophia herself, hoping that Peter would forget about the throne for "fun". The found English bot made it possible to "have fun" not only on land, but also on the water. Gradually, the "amusing" regiments grew and gained strength. A "funny" fortress was built on the Yauza with barracks, barns, and a hut. Service in the "amusing" units became public and paid.

Entry to the throne

In January 1689, Peter married Evdokia Lopukhina. This meant that the little "fun" boy became a grown man, ready to sit on the throne and take the reins of government into his own hands. Peter's position was stronger than Sophia's. Unsuccessful campaigns against Turkey greatly shook the position of the latter. And the suppression of the rebellion of the archers, raised by her, deprived her of the support of the army. Behind Peter were two regiments that cost almost the rest of the army. At least in the exercises that Peter arranged when he became king, they always beat the archers.

On August 7, 1689, a rumor came to Moscow that the "amusing" ones were going to the Kremlin. On this occasion, several people devoted to Peter were arrested. Remembering the horrors of 1982, Peter jumped out of the house in one shirt and galloped away from Preobrazhensky. His morale was very low. By the morning of August 8, his troops approached the Trinity, where Peter was located. By August 27, representatives of almost all archery regiments arrived there. On September 7, Sophia, forced to obey, was exiled to the Novodevichy Convent. Thus began the reign of Peter.

The behavior of the new king differed from the behavior of previous rulers as well as his education. He spent most of his time in the German Quarter. There he walked in such a way that the participants in the parties prepared for them as if they were dying. For some, it was really the result of drinking. But over a glass of wine, Peter did not forget about business. From entertainment, he quickly moved on to business and vice versa. In the German settlement, Peter saw what "enlightened Europe" means. Peter realized that the way of life that Russia has been living in lately needs to be changed. And Peter began to innovate, not always finding a compromise between the new and the old.

Access to the sea

One of the main tasks facing Peter was to gain access to the sea. Even Princess Sophia made an attempt to capture Azov. Then she ended in failure. In 1695, Peter began preparations for a new campaign. However, the assault on Azov this year did not bring results. There were no intelligent engineers in the army, there was no fleet to blockade the fortress from the sea, there was no unity of command. Considering all this, Peter sent ambassadors to Europe. Their task was to hire engineers, artillerymen and officers for the Muscovite tsar. New shipyards were opened in Voronezh, Kozlov and other cities. At the beginning of the following year, two 36-gun ships, 23 galleys, 4 fire ships and numerous Cossack ships approached Azov. Blocked and constantly shelled, Azov surrendered on July 18. It's time to build a navy. Peter assigned this duty to the nobility and merchant class. By the spring of 1698, 52 more ships had been built in this way. But the ultimate goal was not reached. The exit of Russian ships to Europe through the Black Sea was still closed by the Turks. The Black Sea ceased to be the "Turkish Lake", but such key ports as Kerch and Constantinople remained Turkish.

While the ships were being built, Peter decided to go to Europe to learn, recruit craftsmen and establish contacts. In addition, it was necessary to form an alliance for the further fight against Turkey. In the spring of 1697, a "great embassy" of about 200 people left Moscow. Among others rode "Preobrazhensky Regiment constable Pyotr Mikhailov" - Pyotr himself. The first city Peter visited was Riga. Here he was driven away by force of arms by a patrol from the Riga fortress. The fact is that Peter was clearly engaged in espionage activities: he took a plan of the fortress, was interested in the size of the garrison, its weapons. And the fact that the patrol acted as required by the charters later served as one of the reasons for the start of the Northern War. During the "great embassy" Peter studied the art of artillery and shipbuilding, hired a large number of sailors, engineers, gunners, shipbuilders, officers for the infantry. Peter studied European production. He visited mints, shipyards, factories, workshops. Peter did not forget about politics either. During the "great embassy" Peter participated in the election of the Polish king (Russian troops were moved to the border, in case they choose the wrong one). In Vienna, negotiations were underway with the Austrian emperor about an alliance against Turkey. But one of the main conclusions that Peter made in Europe was that ports should be conquered not from Turkey, but from Sweden. Capturing the Baltics would give Russia an outlet to Europe that no one could close.

The return from the embassy was not the most pleasant. Peter was forced to quickly complete his affairs and return to Moscow. At that time, another one flared up Streltsy rebellion. By the time Peter returned to Russia, the rebellion had already been crushed. 56 of his main instigators were executed. But Peter decided to completely destroy all sedition among the archers, and even themselves. According to the results of the new investigation, 799 archers were executed. Peter himself was also tortured, where he showed extreme cruelty. The surviving archers were exiled to different cities. Sophia, whose participation in the rebellion has been proven, is tonsured a nun. At the same time, Peter's wife, Evdokia Lopukhina, was also sent to the monastery.

War with Sweden

The year 1699 was devoted to preparations for war with Sweden. Within three months, 25 infantry and 2 dragoon regiments were recruited and trained. In October, a Polish-Danish-Russian agreement was reached on a war against Sweden. Russia's entry into the war, which Poland and Denmark were supposed to start, was to take place after the conclusion of peace with Turkey. On August 8, 1700, Peter received a message that such an agreement had been signed. On August 9, Russian troops moved to Narva.

However, in 1700 the Russian army was not yet the same victorious army that it later became. A foreign officer who trained soldiers wrote that they "are so good in themselves that you cannot find better in the whole world, but there is no main thing - direct order and teaching." How can one not recall the words of the ambassadors who asked Rurik to come to rule the Russians: “Our land is rich, there is only no order in it.” Narva turned out to be such a defeat for the Russians that Europe decided that Muscovy would not soon prove itself again. Only two regiments of the whole army managed to resist: Preobrazhensky and Semenovsky.And these two regiments cost the rest of the army, both Russian and Swedish.Through their efforts, the remnants of the troops managed to get away from Narva without much shame.

Peter learned a lesson from Narva. During the year, national officer cadres were trained. Armament standards were introduced: muskets and guns. Recruitment was introduced, which later became the only way to recruit an army. The introduction of the bayonet doubled the army. This is due to the fact that before that, half of the companies were supplied with fuzes, half with edged weapons. At the same time, only half of the army participated in the battle - shooting was carried out at long distances, the rest of the army acted in hand-to-hand combat. The introduction of an attached bayonet made it easy to switch from hand-to-hand to shooting and vice versa.

On December 29, 1701, Russian troops won their first victory: Sheremetyev's dragoons defeated Schlipenbach's detachment. It was the first victory of the regular Russian army. It is from this moment that the history of the army begins - the winner, which our army has recommended itself. October 11, 1702 Noteburg fell. On May 1, 1703 Nienschanz surrendered. And already on May 16, Peter began the construction of a new city - St. Petersburg. It was a very bold move on his part. But by this action, Peter showed that he did not intend to give up the newly captured lands. In addition to the construction of St. Petersburg, the construction of the Baltic fleet began. Already in 1703, Russia had several 25-35 cannon frigates and galleys. In 1704 and 1705, the Swedish king Karl made attempts to break through to St. Petersburg, but they ended in his defeat. Having captured Ingria, Peter solved two problems at once: he received a "window to Europe" and cut the Swedish army into two parts. Now it was possible to engage in the occupation of the Baltic states.

In 1705, Russian troops moved to Poland to help their allies. However, the allies rather fettered the actions of Peter than provided any assistance. With great difficulty, the Russian units managed to get out of Grodno, where they were abandoned by the Polish king Augustus. Encouraged by the successes, Karl prepared to march on Moscow. However, he did not have a definite plan for the company. After wandering around Belarus and the Baltic states, the Swedes went to Ukraine, where hetman Mazepa was waiting for them. But having entered the interior of the country, the Swedes were faced with a lack of provisions, destroyed by the Russians and partisans. The position of the Swedish army became more and more critical. Lewenhaupt's corps with a large convoy was going to help her from Sweden. The combination of the two armies would lead to a significant strengthening of the Swedes. But then Karl made a huge mistake. Instead of making a connection, he self-confidently turned inland. Taking advantage of this, Peter sent a "korvolant" ("flying corps") to Levengaupt. In a battle near the town of Propoisk near the village of Lesnoy on September 28, 1708, Russian troops completely defeated the Swedes. The prize for the battle was a huge convoy.

Realizing that help would not come, Karl decided to capture Poltava, which contained both supplies and gunpowder. However, the seemingly weak fortress held out until the main units arrived, albeit with the last of their strength. Peter arrived in the army operating near Poltava on June 4th. On June 16, it was decided to give the Swedes a fight. By agreement with them, the battle was scheduled for June 29. But Karl decided to attack the Russians earlier. However, the surprise factor was lost due to defectors. On June 27, the Poltava battle took place. Here Peter first used fortifications in a field battle. The system of redoubts inflicted enormous damage on the Swedes with their crossfire. The result of the battle was 9 thousand killed and 22 thousand captured Swedes. The Russians lost 1,345 killed and 3,290 wounded. At the end of the battle, Peter arranged a banquet with the participation of the captured Swedish generals. During the banquet, Peter offered to drink for the teachers - the Swedes. To this, Field Marshal Reinshield replied: - "Well, the students thanked their teachers."

The battle of Poltava was for the Swedes what Stalingrad was for the Germans or Dunkirk was for the British. Sweden could not quickly recover from the loss of the army. But she still had a fleet. Riga and Vyborg fell in 1710. Riga, Peter avenged himself by firing the first three shots on its walls with his own hand. During the summer of 1710, everything was taken South coast Finland. But this year brought not only victories, but also defeats. The war with Turkey began again, ending in the defeat of Russia. Under the terms of the agreement, Russia was losing Azov and had to tear down the Taganrog fortress.

During 1712-1714, Russian troops captured all of southern Finland and the central European possessions of Sweden. On July 27, 1714, the Swedish fleet was defeated at Cape Gangut. Now Sweden was finally weakened. Russia has moved into the ranks of major powers. She only needed to move her troops for the issues to be decided in her favor. Peter entered into several political marriages between his daughters and the offspring of European rulers. An interesting fact is that before Gangut, Peter asked the highest naval authorities to promote him to the next rank - vice admiral. But this was refused to him under the pretext that when he "distinguished himself by something special, then he would be given the rank of vice admiral." In 1718, peace negotiations began. They were interrupted due to the death of Charles during the storming of the Norwegian fortress. Ulrika-Eleonora ascended the Swedish throne, determined to continue the war. In 1719, Russian troops landed near Stockholm. In 1720, the Russian fleet defeated the Swedish fleet off Grengam Island before the eyes of the British. By that time, the British were so worried about the success of Russia that they wanted to enter the war on the side of Sweden. Fortunately, they did not dare to do this, fearing to damage the Russian-English trade.

On August 30, 1721, an agreement was signed in Nystadt that ended the Northern War. According to it, Russia received Estonia, Livonia, Ingria, Karelia and part of Finland with Vyborg. On this occasion, celebrations were arranged in St. Petersburg. On October 20, Peter announced the forgiveness of all convicts, the abolition of arrears, and the release of state debtors. On the same day, the Senate awarded Peter the title of Emperor, the title of the Great and Father of the Fatherland.

The Northern War is over. During this time, Peter managed to bring the country out of the provincial Muscovy into the Russian Empire. The fleet plowed the Baltic Sea. The army forced to reckon with the opinion of Russia on any issue. True, the road to the empire was paved with the bones of working people. The empire was created by the enormous effort of the whole people. During the Northern War, the troops more than once had to fight with their own people, suppressing uprisings.

Reforms of Peter

But not only with the sword did Peter act all these years. Estate reform was carried out. According to it, the nobles were obliged to serve the state. Those who did not serve in the army, navy or in a civil institution did not have the right to marry. Separate decrees abolished the appointment to positions depending on the generosity. Now anyone, not even a nobleman, could achieve a position. In 1722, the Table of Ranks was adopted, which served as the basis for the hierarchy of society until the revolution itself. The decree of 1714 established the procedure for the inheritance of lands. According to him, only one son in the family could receive land. Thus, Peter wanted to stop the fragmentation of estates and increase the number of nobles going to public service. In 1718 a new system of taxing peasants was introduced. Instead of taxing the court, as was done before, the tax was now taken from the able-bodied male soul. The introduction of this system made it possible to increase the total amount of taxes levied by 4 times.

In addition to the estate reform, a reform of management structures was carried out. On February 22, 1711, setting off for the Prut campaign, Peter left the Governing Senate of 10 people for himself. In 1718 the orders and offices were destroyed and collegiums were formed. In 1721, the patriarchate was abolished and a synod was introduced. For local administration, back in 1708, the state was divided into 8 provinces. In 1719, instead of huge provinces, the country was divided into 50 provinces, divided into discrites. A regiment was stationed in each discrite. Thus, by 1725 Russia had 126 infantry and cavalry regiments. In addition, Russia had a fleet of 48 battleships and 787 galleys.

Peter paid great attention to the development of domestic industry. Huge loans were made for the construction of factories. During the reign of Peter, the development of the wealth of the Urals began. State expeditions were sent there to explore its bowels. In addition, with the help of Peter, the later well-known merchant Demidov settled in the Urals. This was a mutually beneficial deal, since Demidov received a huge income, and Russia could no longer import metal products from abroad. Every year 12-15 young merchants went to Europe to learn how to trade. To reduce the import of goods from abroad, a high tax was introduced in 1724. The result was that exports exceeded imports twice. A ban on imports was imposed on a number of goods produced in Russia. Raw materials accounted for only 48% of the total export volume.

The factories were also organized by Peter himself, but after production was established, he often forced the nobles and merchants to buy them from the state. Most of the emerging factories were built for the needs of the war. But at the same time they brought more and more income to the country. In addition to large factories, the development of handicrafts was also encouraged. So individual handicraftsmen began to be reduced to workshops. The development of industry increased the demand for the working class. The factories were given prisoners. To some, Peter handed over not only prisoners, but also state peasants. By the end of Peter's reign, 221 industrial enterprises were operating in Russia. Of these, only 21 were founded before Peter.

But Peter's eyes were not fixed only on Europe. In 1717, a detachment was sent to conquer Khiva. But, as you know, the East is a delicate matter. Having defeated the Khivans in battle, the Russian commanders fell for tricks. During the negotiations, the troops were divided into several detachments, after which they were cut out. The development of Siberia went better. During Peter's reign, several cities were founded there. On July 18, 1722, Peter went on a Persian campaign. Using the help of the Armenian and Georgian princes, Peter managed to conquer the western and southern coasts of the Caspian Sea for Russia. Now Russia has got its own lake - the Caspian. The furthest point reached by Russian troops under Peter was Kamchatka and the Kuriles.

Emperor's death

In the deep autumn of 1724, Peter helped to remove the soldiers from the boat that had run aground and caught a cold. While ill, he still conducted business and took part in the fun. But on January 16, he fell ill and did not get up again. On January 27, he demanded paper. With a weakened hand, he wrote "Give it all" and died. Thus ended the reign of one of prominent people stories.

During his 35-year reign, Peter did a lot for Russia. He shook up every corner of her life. Peter shook the old straw out of the country and stuffed it with new. True, this straw was often taken from old mattresses in Europe, but even so, the result was impressive. Many innovations were superfluous, some did not fit well on Russian soil, the bureaucracy was greatly inflated. But it was up to his descendants to harrow what Peter plowed. The main thing was done. Muscovy gave way to the Russian Empire. Ever since those memorable times, Russia has marched through history with the roar of guns. The success of her actions fluctuated, but, by and large, those who tried to ignore the authority of Russia were severely beaten for it.

With Peter, a new era in the development of our country began.

Bibliography

1. Anisimov E.V. Time of Peter's reforms. - L.: Lenizdat, 1989.

2. Pavlenko N.I. Peter the Great. - M.: Thought, 1990.

The economic strengthening of the country and the strengthening of its international position created the prerequisites for the reforms of the end of the 17th - the first quarter of the 18th century. The military reform was Peter's primary transformative work. It was the longest and most difficult for both himself and the people. The merit of Peter is the creation of a regular Russian army. Peter I disbanded the Moscow Streltsy regiments and, with the help of the Preobrazhensky and Semenovtsy, who grew out of amusing regiments and became the first soldier regiments of the regular tsarist army, set about recruiting and training a new army. In the military campaign of 1708-1709. against the Swedes, the new Russian army showed itself at the level of European armies. Recruitment kits were introduced to equip the army with soldiers. Sets were carried out according to the norm - one recruit from 20 draft yards.

For the training of officers, several special schools were established: navigation, artillery, engineering. The Guards Regiment - Preobrazhensky and Semenovsky - served as the main military-practical school for officers. By decree of the tsar of February 26, 1714, it was forbidden to promote nobles who did not serve as soldiers in the guards regiments as officers. At the end of the reign of Peter the Great, the number of regular ground troops reached 200 thousand people. courts. Of all the transformations of Peter, the reform of public administration, the reorganization of all its links, occupied a central place. New orders began to be created, offices appeared. Peter hoped to radically solve the problem of governance with the help of regional reform, that is, the creation of new administrative entities - provinces that united several former counties. In 1708, provinces were also formed in Russia. To provide the army with everything necessary, a direct connection between the province and the regiments was established.

Regional reforms were a characteristic indicator of the development of a bureaucratic trend. They led to the concentration of financial and administrative powers in the hands of several governors - representatives of the central government, created an extensive hierarchical network of bureaucratic institutions with a large staff of officials on the ground. The next level of bureaucratization of the top management was the creation of the Senate. He came to replace the Boyar Duma. The Senate, as the highest institution of the Petrine administration, concentrated judicial, administrative and legislative functions in its hands, was in charge of collegiums and provinces, appointed and approved officials.

The newly created bodies of central government include colleges created in 1717-1718. instead of the previous orders. 9 colleges were established, including the military, admiralty, foreign affairs, justice college, and so on.

In 1699, the cities were granted the right to manage their own elected stewards. These burmisters made up the town hall. Town halls of regional cities were subordinated to the Chamber of Burmese, or the Town Hall of Moscow. In 1720, the Chief Magistrate was established in St. Petersburg, which was supposed to organize and manage magistrates in regional cities. The magistrates were in charge of the city economy, they had to take care of the development of trade and industry, the improvement and deanery of cities, and they decided not only civil, but also criminal cases.

So, in the course of Peter's transformations, the system of medieval government was replaced by a bureaucratic state machine.

The most important feature of the economic boom of the early 17th century was the decisive role of the autocratic state in the economy, its active and deep penetration into all spheres of economic life. This was demanded by the concept of mercantilism that dominated Europe. It is expressed in the active intervention of the state in economic life - in achieving an active balance in foreign trade.

The constant need for money for military expenses prompted Peter to seek more and more new sources of state revenue. A number of new taxes appear, own trade is created, monopolies are introduced for the procurement and sale of certain goods.

Under Peter the direct taxation underwent a radical upheaval. If before that the population was taxed by households, now they have switched to a general taxation. Taxes were to be paid by peasants and male townspeople from a baby to a very old man.

In the reign of Peter I, the Russian monetary system was created. A small bargaining chip of a penny, money and polushki was minted from copper. Hryvnias, fifty dollars, half fifty dollars and rubles were minted from silver. Chervonets were minted from gold. According to the Western model, Peter I tried to teach his capitalists to act in a European way - to combine capitals, to unite in companies. So, by decree of 1699. he ordered merchants to trade companies. To encourage them, various benefits were introduced - state subsidies and benefits. From about the end of the 1810s. Peter went for a significant change in trade and industrial policy: the monopoly on export trade was effectively eliminated, various measures were taken to encourage private industrial entrepreneurship, and the practice of transferring state enterprises, primarily unprofitable for the treasury, to private owners or companies specially created for this became widespread. However, changing to a certain extent economic policy. Peter was not going to weaken the influence of the state on the economy. At the same time, important social transformations took place in Russia. The fight against the escapes of the peasants was sharply intensified. The mass return of the fugitives to their former owners began. The category of freemen and walkers was outlawed. On January 18, 1721, Peter 1 signed a decree that allowed private manufactories to buy serfs to use them in factory work. This decree marked a decisive step towards the transformation of industrial enterprises, in which the capitalist way of life was born, into serf enterprises, into a kind of feudal property. A new criterion for the service of the nobility was introduced. Previously, the principle of origin worked. Now the principle of personal service has been introduced. Its conditions were determined by law. The new principle was reflected in the Table of Ranks of 1722. He divided the entire mass of civil servants, military and civil, into 14 ranks, or ranks. Every officer and civilian official had to move along them. The most important of the conditions was the obligatory service of an ordinary soldier or clerk. Social transformations also affected the serfs. The Petrine era led to the merging of serfs and serfs into a single estate. The reform was also significant in relation to urban residents. Peter decided to unify the social structure of the city, transferring Western European institutions to it: magistrates, workshops, guilds.

The townspeople were divided into two guilds. The first guild was made up of the first-class. It included the top tenants, rich merchants, artisans, citizens of intelligent professions. In the second - small shopkeepers and artisans. They were combined into workshops on a professional basis. All other citizens were subject to a general check in order to identify fugitive peasants among them.

Peter I Alekseevich (1682-1725) really came to power, having come to his twentieth birthday. Peter the Great as a statesman was distinguished by his versatility in talents. He was a talented commander, an excellent diplomat, an outstanding legislator and a gifted publicist, etc. Peter's reforms left a deep mark on the history of the country, as they affected almost all spheres of life.

In the early 1690s. the course of the first Peter's reforms began to take shape spontaneously. At that time, they were forced measures, consistent operational measures aimed at strengthening the Russian army and navy and creating a military industry, achieving victory in the Northern War (1700–1721).

The following can be noted character traits most of Peter's transformations: 1) the desire for universal regulation, unification (bringing to a single model) of political and social institutions;

2) formation of a multi-stage unified system of police supervision and control;

3) the widespread use of Western European experience as a model for change.

In the political sphere, the following reforms are distinguished:

1) after the victory in the Northern War, Peter I assumed the title of Emperor, Russia from that time began to be called an empire, which should have emphasized its new foreign policy status as a world power;

2) instead of the Boyar Duma, which ceased to exist, the Senate became the highest deliberative body under Emperor Peter I (since 1711). It was a state body, which was formed from senior officials who enjoyed the greatest confidence in the emperor. The main task of the Senate was to control and audit the activities of lower bodies, for which the Senate had a special staff of fiscals. Although in the future the Senate itself was the object of constant supervision by a specially organized prosecutor's office (since 1722);

3) central governing bodies, colleges were formed (since 1719). At the same time, separate orders continued to exist and worked until the middle of the 18th century. The main colleges were: Military, Admiralty and the Collegium of "Foreign Affairs". In addition, 3 commercial and industrial, 3 financial colleges were created, the College of Justice (controlled the local court), the Patronage College (in charge of land ownership), the City Magistrate (controlled city government);

4) the old county-volost structure of the country was abolished. Russia was divided into 8 provinces (in 1708–1710). The provinces, in turn, were subdivided into provinces, and the provinces into districts. The provinces were headed by governors who were appointed by Peter the Great from among his most trusted comrades-in-arms;

5) the Orthodox Church under Peter I was transformed into a state institution headed by the Synod. The Synod was headed by the chief prosecutor, who was a secular person, while the patriarchate was liquidated. From that time on, priests were considered as civil servants and were obliged to make reports on the trustworthiness of the parishioners. Peter I inflicted great damage on the monasteries, which he considered the havens of parasites. Significance of administrative transformations. As a result of the administrative reforms of Peter I in Russia, the formation of an absolute monarchy was completed.

Reforms of Peter I and their significance

In the transformative activity of Peter I, four main directions can be distinguished.

1. Reforms of the state apparatus - administrative and military.
2. Economic and social reforms.
3. Church reforms and transformations in cultural life.
4. Reforms related to raising the international status of Russia.

The repeated increase in taxes led to the impoverishment and enslavement of the bulk of the population. Attaching every Russian to a place of residence and a place of service reduced the space of freedom, which expanded at that time in Europe. All were built into the system, like cogs in a clockwork. Carrying out the reform of public administration, Peter I was guided by the introduction of a bureaucratic principle. In Russia, a cult of institutions has developed, and the pursuit of ranks and positions has become a national disaster.

A feature of the administrative reform was the creation of a system of state control over the activities of the administrative apparatus. This led to a kind of “bureaucratic revolution”, the consequence of which was the dependence of everyone on the state apparatus.

The economic policy during the reign of Peter I was of a mercantilist nature, combined with protectionism in relation to domestic industry. The policy of mercantilism implied the encouragement of the development of domestic trade and industry with an active foreign trade balance. Encouragement of "useful and necessary" types of production from the point of view of the state was combined with the prohibition or restriction of the production of "unnecessary" goods. The development of industry was dictated by the needs of warfare. The main attention was paid to metallurgy, the center of which moved to the Urals. Copper-smelting, silver-smelting, and ironworks appeared. The Arsenal and the Admiralty shipyard grew in the capital, from the stocks of which during the life of Peter I 59 large and 200 small ships left. By 1725, the country had 25 textile enterprises, rope and gunpowder manufactories. For the first time, paper, cement, sugar factories, as well as a wallpaper factory were built. Growth industrial production based on the strengthening of feudal exploitation. Forced labor was widely used at manufactories - the labor of serfs, bought (possession) peasants, as well as the labor of the state (black) peasantry, which was attributed to the plant as a constant source of labor, was used.

Transformations also took place in small-scale production. In 1711, craft schools were established at the manufactories. And by decrees of 1722, a shop device was introduced in the cities. This testified to the patronage of the authorities to the development of crafts.

Agriculture continued to develop in an extensive way. New crops were introduced medicinal plants, fruit trees, tobacco, etc.

In the field of domestic and foreign trade, the state monopoly on the procurement and sale of basic goods played an important role, which significantly replenished the treasury. By the end of Peter's reign, exports of Russian goods were twice as high as imports, and high customs tariffs reliably protected the domestic market.

The main results of the military reforms of Peter the Great are as follows

Creation of a combat-ready regular army, one of the strongest in the world, which gave Russia the opportunity to fight and defeat its main opponents;

The emergence of a whole galaxy of talented commanders (Alexander Menshikov, Boris Sheremetev, Fedor Apraksin, Yakov Bruce, etc.);

Creation of a powerful navy; - a gigantic increase in military spending and covering them through the most severe squeezing of funds from the people.

Peter's church policy, as well as his policy in other areas of public life, was aimed, first of all, at the most efficient use of the church for the needs of the state, and more specifically, at squeezing money from the church for state programs, primarily for the construction of the fleet. After Peter's journey as part of the Great Embassy, ​​he is also occupied with the problem of the complete subordination of the church to his authority. As a result of the church reform, the church lost a huge part of its influence and turned into a part of the state apparatus, strictly controlled and managed by secular authorities.

Russia became an autocratic, military-bureaucratic state, the central role in which belonged to the nobility. At the same time, the backwardness of Russia was not completely overcome, and the reforms were carried out mainly through the most severe exploitation and coercion.

23. Regular state" of Peter I.

Although the public administration reforms carried out by Peter I were not systematic and strict, it is easy to notice two tasks that always remained a priority and indisputable for him, namely: 1) unification of public administration bodies and the entire system of administration; 2) carrying out a collegiate principle through the entire administration, which, together with a system of public (prosecutor) and secret (fiscality) control, was supposed, according to the king, to ensure legality in administration.

Peter I was captivated by the idea of ​​creating a state of perfect regularity in Russia, in which each person would have a precisely designated place and strictly obey the regulations. His model of an ideal (regular, legal) state was based on the belief that the state can function effectively only on the basis of laws and rules established from above and only with the help of the right arranged system state bureaucracy, placed under the strict control of the supreme power and free from the arbitrariness of officials.

Building a rationally managed state through reforms and legislative regulation was the conscious goal of Peter. He dreamed of creating, in his words, a “regular” state, in the creation, in his words, of a “regular” state, in which well-thought-out laws would be used to ensure the smooth functioning of the entire mechanism of government and protect the population from the arbitrariness of officials. But in the absence of any institutions of social control, the state was not bound by anything during the implementation of the reforms. And the reforms began to take on the character of coercive measures. No initiative coming from society and even from the closest environment was no longer needed. Peter needed only capable organizers and performers.

From the point of view of practical implementation, the model of a regular state has found its embodiment in the legislative regulation of all aspects of public life, active state intervention in public relations, state protectionism (active state support for priority sectors of the national economy) up to the introduction of a state monopoly in a number of sectors of the then young national industry . This is also connected with the desire of Peter I to create an effective system for the fight against corruption and bureaucratic red tape.

The main principle of the state policy of Peter I was the principle of benefit, state benefit. In the new system of values ​​approved by him, state, sovereign interests prevailed over ideological postulates and dogmas. The state, which in the era of Peter I became the subject of a new cult, was perceived as a self-sufficient entity and, ultimately, as a new basis for Russian identity. Religious values ​​were also placed at the service of the state. Such state maximalism was bound to come into conflict with the Christian idea of ​​the spiritual sovereignty of the individual. As a consistent pragmatist, Peter I could not perceive the moral abstractions of Christianity. We can say that it was from Peter I that politics in Russia was deprived of any moral content.

The main task of the state reforms of Peter I was a radical restructuring of the state apparatus, since the traditionally organized power and administration that had formed in the Moscow period could not ensure the mobilization of all resources - economic, military, technological in the conditions of the beginning of the modernization of society. The modernization of the state apparatus assumed completely new principles for its construction. The main ones are usually distinguished:

1) institutionalization of management, which found its expression in the creation of a new system of institutions;

2) an increase in the efficiency of management, achieved through unification (uniformity), centralization, differentiation of the administrative apparatus and its militarization;

3) changing the principles of staffing the apparatus of new institutions (colleges, provinces).

21. Reforms of Peter the Great and their significance for Russian history: opinions of historians.

Foreign policy of Peter I. main goal foreign policy Peter I had access to the Baltic Sea, which would provide Russia with a connection with Western Europe. In 1699, Russia, having entered into an alliance with Poland and Denmark, declared war on Sweden. The outcome of the Northern War, which lasted 21 years, was influenced by the victory of the Russians in the Battle of Poltava on June 27, 1709. and the victory over the Swedish fleet at Gangut on July 27, 1714.

On August 30, 1721, the Treaty of Nystadt was signed, according to which Russia retained the conquered lands of Livonia, Estland, Ingermanland, part of Karelia and all the islands of the Gulf of Finland and Riga. Access to the Baltic Sea was secured.

In commemoration of what was achieved in the Great Northern War, on October 20, 1721, the Senate and the Synod awarded the tsar with the title of Father of the Fatherland, Peter the Great and Emperor of All Russia.

In 1723, after a month and a half of hostilities with Persia, Peter I acquired the western shore of the Caspian Sea.

Simultaneously with the conduct of hostilities, the vigorous activity of Peter I was also aimed at carrying out numerous reforms, the purpose of which was to bring the country closer to European civilization, increase the education of the Russian people, and strengthen the power and international position of Russia. A lot has been done by the great tsar, here are just the main reforms of Peter I.

Reform of public administration of Peter I

Instead of the Boyar Duma, in 1700 the Council of Ministers was created, which met in the Near Chancellery, and in 1711 - the Senate, which by 1719 had become the highest state body. With the creation of the provinces, numerous Orders ceased their activity, they were replaced by Collegia, which were subordinate to the Senate. The secret police also operated in the management system - the Preobrazhensky order (in charge of state crimes) and the Secret Chancellery. Both institutions were under the jurisdiction of the emperor himself.

Administrative reforms of Peter I

Regional (provincial) reform of Peter I

The largest administrative reform of local government was the creation in 1708 of 8 provinces headed by governors, in 1719 their number increased to 11. The second administrative reform divided the provinces into provinces headed by governors, and the provinces into districts (counties) headed by with zemstvo commissars.

Urban reform (1699-1720)

To manage the city, the Burmister Chamber in Moscow was created, renamed in November 1699 into the Town Hall, and magistrates subordinate to the Chief Magistrate in St. Petersburg (1720). The members of the City Hall and the magistrates were elected through elections.

Estate reforms

The main goal of the estate reform of Peter I was to formalize the rights and obligations of each estate - the nobility, the peasantry and the urban population.

Nobility.

Decree on estates (1704), according to which both boyars and nobles received estates and estates.

Decree on Education (1706) - all boyar children are required to receive primary education.

Decree on single inheritance (1714), according to which a nobleman could leave an inheritance only to one of his sons.

Table of Ranks (1721): the service to the sovereign was divided into three departments - the army, the state and the court - each of which was divided into 14 ranks. This document allowed a man of the lower class to curry favor with the nobility.

Peasantry

Most of the peasants were serfs. Kholops could sign up as soldiers, which freed them from serfdom.

Among the free peasants were:

state, with personal freedom, but limited in the right to move (i.e., by the will of the monarch, they could be transferred to serfs);

palace, which belonged personally to the king;

sessional, assigned to manufactories. The owner had no right to sell them.

urban estate

Urban people were divided into "regular" and "irregular". The regular ones were divided into guilds: the 1st guild - the richest, the 2nd guild - small merchants and wealthy artisans. Irregulars, or "mean people", made up the majority of the urban population.

In 1722, workshops appeared that united masters of one craft.

Judicial reform of Peter I

The functions of the Supreme Court were carried out by the Senate and the College of Justice. Courts of appeal and provincial courts headed by governors operated in the provinces. The provincial courts dealt with the cases of peasants (except for monasteries) and townspeople not included in the settlement. Since 1721, the court cases of the townspeople included in the settlement were conducted by the magistrate. In other cases, cases were decided by the Zemstvo or city judge alone.

Church reform of Peter I

Peter I abolished the patriarchate, deprived the church of power, and transferred its funds to the state treasury. Instead of the post of patriarch, the tsar introduced a collegiate supreme administrative church body - the Holy Synod.

Financial reforms of Peter I

The first stage of the financial reform of Peter I was reduced to collecting money for the maintenance of the army and the conduct of wars. Benefits from the monopoly sale of certain types of goods (vodka, salt, etc.) were added, indirect taxes (bath, horse, beard, etc.) were introduced.

In 1704, a monetary reform, according to which the penny became the main monetary unit. The fiat ruble was abolished.

Tax reform of Peter I consisted in the transition from the household taxation to the poll tax. In this regard, the government included in the tax all categories of the peasant and townspeople, who had previously been exempt from tax.

Thus, during tax reform of Peter I a single monetary tax (poll tax) was introduced and the number of taxpayers increased.

Social reforms of Peter I

Education reform of Peter I

In the period from 1700 to 1721. many civilian and military schools were opened in Russia. Among them are the School of Mathematical and Navigational Sciences; artillery, engineering, medical, mining, garrison, theological schools; digital schools free education children of all ranks; Maritime Academy in St. Petersburg.

Peter I created the Academy of Sciences, under which the first Russian university was established, and under it the first gymnasium. But this system began to operate after the death of Peter.

Reforms of Peter I in culture

Peter I introduced a new alphabet, which facilitated literacy and promoted book printing. The first Russian newspaper Vedomosti began to be published, in 1703 the first book in Russian with Arabic numerals appeared.

The tsar developed a plan for the stone construction of St. Petersburg, paying Special attention beauty of architecture. He invited foreign artists, and also sent talented young people abroad to study "arts". Peter I laid the foundation for the Hermitage.

Socio-economic reforms of Peter I

To boost industrial production and develop trade relations with foreign countries, Peter I invited foreign specialists, but at the same time encouraged the domestic industrialist and merchant. Peter I sought to ensure that more goods were exported from Russia than were imported. During his reign, 200 plants and factories operated on the territory of Russia.

Reforms of Peter I in the army

Peter I introduced annual recruitment sets of young Russians (from 15 to 20 years old) and ordered the training of soldiers to begin. In 1716, the Military Regulations were issued, outlining the service, rights and duties of the military.

As a result military reform of Peter I a powerful regular army and navy was created.

The reform activities of Peter had the support of a wide circle of the nobility, but caused discontent and resistance among the boyars, archers and the clergy, because. transformations entailed the loss of their leading role in public administration. Among the opponents of the reforms of Peter I was his son Alexei.

The results of the reforms of Peter I

The regime of absolutism is established in Russia. During the years of his reign, Peter created a state with a more advanced system of government, a strong army and navy, and a stable economy. There was a centralization of power.

Rapid development of foreign and domestic trade.

The abolition of the patriarchate, the church lost its independence and authority in society.

Enormous progress has been made in science and culture. A task of national importance was set - the creation of Russian medical education, and the beginning of Russian surgery was laid.

Features of the reforms of Peter I

The reforms were carried out according to the European model and covered all spheres of activity and life of society.

Lack of reform system.

The reforms were carried out mainly through harsh exploitation and coercion.

Peter, impatient by nature, innovated at a rapid pace.

Reasons for the reforms of Peter I

To XVIII century Russia was a backward country. She was significantly inferior Western European countries in terms of the volume of production in industry, the level of education and culture (even in the ruling circles there were many illiterate people). The boyar aristocracy, which was at the head of the state apparatus, did not meet the needs of the country. The Russian army, which consisted of archers and the noble militia, was poorly armed, untrained and could not cope with its task.

The main result of the totality of the Petrine reforms was the establishment in Russia of the regime of absolutism, the crown of which was the change in 1721. The title of the Russian monarch - Peter declared himself emperor, and the country became

be called the Russian Empire. Thus, what Peter was going for all the years of his reign was formalized - the creation of a state with a coherent system of government, a strong army and navy, a powerful economy that had an impact on international politics. As a result of Peter's reforms, the state was not bound by anything and could use any means to achieve its goals. As a result, Peter came to his ideal state structure - a warship, where everything and everything is subject to the will of one person - the captain, and managed to bring this ship out of the swamp into the stormy waters of the ocean, bypassing all the reefs and shoals. Russia became an autocratic, military-bureaucratic state, the central role in which belonged to the nobility. At the same time, Russia's backwardness was not completely overcome, and the reforms were carried out mainly through the most severe exploitation and coercion. The complexity and inconsistency of Russia's development during this period also determined the inconsistency of Peter's activities and the reforms he carried out. On the one hand, they had great historical significance, since they contributed to the progress of the country and were aimed at eliminating its backwardness. On the other hand, they were carried out by the feudal lords, using feudal methods, and were aimed at strengthening their dominance. Therefore, the progressive transformations of the time of Peter the Great from the very beginning carried conservative features, which, in the course of the further development of the country, became stronger and could not ensure the elimination of socio-economic backwardness. As a result of Peter's transformations, Russia quickly caught up with those European countries where the dominance of feudal-serf relations was preserved, but it could not catch up with those countries that embarked on the capitalist path of development. , laws, foundations and way of life and way of life. The family of Peter the Great in the history of Russia is difficult to overestimate. No matter how you relate to the methods and style of his reforms, one cannot but admit that Peter the Great is one of the most prominent figures in world history.

The historical significance of the reforms of Peter I is as follows.

First, the result of the reforms and transformations was the strengthening of Russia's sovereign power, the strengthening of its economic potential and military might. Peter I completed the state building of the Russian Empire, begun by the Romanov dynasty. Thanks to his efforts, the former Muscovy turned into a strong European state with a regular army and navy, with a powerful and efficient state apparatus, with a clear system of state administration.

Secondly, the legislative activity of the time of Peter the Great strengthened the basis of the absolute monarchy in Russia, in no way limiting the power of the emperor. During the reign of Peter I, more than 3,000 legal acts were adopted regarding changes in public administration and other important areas of the state. Peter the Great legislated his reforms so that there would be no return to the old, so that the Russians would learn to live according to the law, in a new way, in a European way. Under this monarch, the law completely supplants the countless customs and traditions inherent in princely Russia. Ignoring, non-enforcement of the law began to be regarded as a crime. In addition, Peter I is the author ofmany regulations, tables, articles and other regulatory legal acts issued during the reform period. Suffice it to say that the General Regulations, which determined the rights and duties of officials, were subjected to royal editing twelve times.

Thirdly, the restructuring of Peter I changed many areas of Russian life. Thanks to his reforms, Russia has become on a par with the developed European countries.

Questions for self-control.

What are the prerequisites for the reforms of Peter I?

How did Peter I begin his reign?

Why did the first Azov campaign fail?

How did Peter I manage to take the Azov fortress?

Why did Peter I start the Northern War?

How did the tsar begin the reform of public administration and why?

Why did Peter I conduct military, tax, church and other

1. How did Peter I fight corruption?

   What is the historical significance of the transformations of Peter I?

   What titles were awarded to Peter I?

Chapter 6. The Russian Empire in the 18th century

6.1. Palace revolutions.

Russia after Peter the Great. After the death of Peter I, Russia enters a long period of palace coups. Palace coups were the only way to resolve the contradictions that arose in the political elites of that time.

By the end of the reign of Peter I, the tension between the autocratic power, the ruling elite and the ruling class reached a critical level. This was caused, on the one hand, by a decrease in benefits for the nobility, and on the other hand, by the strengthening of autocratic power, the imperial form of government, which was distinguished under Peter the Great by sharp pressure on the nobility. This led to the undermining of the social support of the autocracy, the open discontent of the elite, which testified to the lack of unity within the ruling camp.

Already on the eve of the death of Peter I, on January 25-26, 1725, a split arose among the highest ranks of the empire. One group (President of the College of Justice P. M. Apraksin, President of the College of Commerce D. M. Golitsyn, President of the Military College N. I. Repnin, Senator V. L. Dolgoruky, President of the State Offices College I. A. Musin -Pushkin and Chancellor G.I. Golovkin) advocated the enthronement of the grandson of Peter I - Tsarevich Peter Alekseevich and the establishment of a regency system - the reign of Peter I's wife Ekaterina Alekseevna together with the Senate. Another group (His Serene Highness Prince A. D. Menshikov, Prosecutor General of the Senate P. I. Yaguzhinsky, General I. I. Buturlin, diplomat and head of the Secret Chancellery P. A. Tolstoy, Vice-President of the Synod F. Prokopovich, etc.) defended the candidacy of Catherine as an autocratic empress.

The dispute went far, but assertiveness, skillful agitation and, most importantly, reliance on the guards (Preobrazhensky and Semenovsky) regiments at a critical moment ensured the enthronement of Ekaterina Alekseevna after the death of Peter the Great on January 28, 1725.

Empress Catherine I(1725-1727), the daughter of a Lithuanian peasant, Marta Skavronskaya, in 1702 was among the captives taken by Peter's army in Marienburg. Her marriage to Peter I in 1712 elevated her to the pinnacle of power. Nevertheless, neither in her outlook nor in her business qualities was she suitable for the role of Peter's successor. The empress, incapable of independent activity, in essence, transferred her powers to elected dignitaries. By decree of February 8, 1726, a new supreme body was formed - Supreme Privy Council. It included A. D. Menshikov (in whose hands the real power was concentrated), F. M. Apraksin, G. I. Golovkin, D. M. Golitsyn, A. I. Osterman and P. A. Tolstoy. Despite the representative composition and extensive competence, the Council was not a body that limited the autocracy, but was a bureaucratic institution placed under the control of the empress.

Rejection of Peter's reforms. The policy of the Supreme Privy Council was characterized by the rejection of the broad reform program of Peter I, which was recognized as too expensive for the state. Certain principles of the organization of state administration were revised, the taxation system was changed, and the institutions of the time of Peter the Great were dismantled. Some colleges were abolished, while others were merged, magistrates were liquidated. All judicial and administrative power in the provinces was transferred to the governors, and in the provinces and districts - to the governors. The role of the Petrine Senate was also belittled.

"Verkhovniki" reduced the size of the poll tax by 4 kopecks. and withdrew military teams from the provinces, which, under Peter, were a power parallel to the local administration with broad police functions. However, the expectation that provincial and district officials would cope with the collection of taxes and arrears turned out to be untenable. Therefore, from 1728, the regular dispatch of military teams to the counties to collect tax payments from the population resumed.

Peter II. In May 1727 Catherine I died. According to her will, the eleven-year-old grandson of her emperor, Peter II, became the successor on the throne, and the Supreme Privy Council was appointed the collective regent until the young sovereign came of age. This political combination was thought out and brilliantly carried out by Menshikov, who hoped to marry his daughter to the young emperor and thus finally establish himself as a real ruler under the heirs of Peter the Great.

Peter II ruled for a short time, only three years from 1727 to 1730 . He showed no diligence or inclination for any other occupation than hunting, so it seemed that he should become a toy in the hands of a regent or guardian.

The first time after the accession of Peter II, everything went according to the will of Menshikov: he managed to establish petty guardianship over the tsar, to achieve the betrothal of his daughter Mary to him, and for himself - the title of generalissimo. However, already in the summer of 1727, when Menshikov lost his former activity due to illness, a sudden turning point occurred: the emperor almost defiantly avoided communication with his former mentor and did not hide the change in favor - Dolgoruky's father and son became new favorites. At a difficult moment, Menshikov did not have any friends or intercessors, and a conspiracy against him was organized by his own nominee, Vice-Chancellor A. I. Osterman. In September 1727, Menshikov was arrested and exiled with his family to the Siberian village of Berezov, near the Arctic Circle. The untold wealth of the Menshikov family was confiscated, moreover, part of it was spent on preparing the coronation of Peter II. After the experience, the generalissimo died two years later.

The fall of Generalissimo Menshikov led to a regrouping of forces within the Supreme Privy Council: two Dolgoruky were among its members. To strengthen their influence at court, they decided to repeat Menshikov's move - to marry Peter II with Ekaterina Alekseevna Dolgoruky. The wedding was scheduled for January 19, but on the night before the celebration, Peter II died, having lived less than fifteen years.

« Conditions» «supreme leaders». At an emergency meeting of the Council on the day of the death of Peter II, Prince D. M. Golitsyn took the initiative. He nominated the niece of Peter I - Duchess Anna Ivanovna. The idea of ​​the political elite was that the new contender for the throne should be in the capacity of a reigning, but not an autocratic empress. This choice was dictated by the far-reaching plans of the "supreme leaders" - to limit the power of the empress. After the unanimous approval of this intention, V. L. Dolgoruky was sent to Anna in Mitava with the text « Conditions ”- the conditions under which she had to take power.

« Conditions” contained the following requirements: without the consent of the Supreme Privy Council, do not declare war or make peace; not to approve the budget and not to introduce new taxes; do not promote to the ranks above the colonel; do not favor anyone with fiefdoms; do not appoint to court positions; not to deprive representatives of the nobility without trial of life, honor and property. The conditions of the political elite, in essence, led to the establishment of oligarchic rule - they also obliged the empress to maintain the Supreme Privy Council of 8 people and transfer the army and guards to its complete subordination.

Having received the consent of Anna Ivanovna, on February 2, at an expanded meeting of the council with the participation of the highest officials of the state, the "supervisors" announced the draft state structure, but it aroused distrust and even protest among those present. Then the "supervisors" allowed the nobility to take part in the discussion of the forthcoming form of government and express their views. Seven counter projects developed by noble circles showed, on the one hand, non-resistance to the very idea of ​​\u200b\u200blimiting autocracy, and on the other, hostility to the Supreme Privy Council, which seeks to establish itself in power.

At the same time, the defenders of the absolutist system, and first of all F. Prokopovich and A. I. Osterman, developed a vigorous activity, who secretly sent detailed reports and advice to Anna. Their active actions allowed Anna to easily master the situation. Relying on the support of the guards and the growing ranks of her supporters, on February 25 in the Kremlin Palace, she publicly tore up the text of the conditions and proclaimed herself an autocratic empress.

Board of Anna Ivanovna (1730-1740). Anna, poorly educated and narrow-minded, who preferred rude amusements to public affairs, like shooting birds from the windows of the palace, and enjoying the brawls of jesters, handed over the reins of power to her inner circle.

The Empress and a narrow circle of her close associates controlled all official movements in the guards, rendered all kinds of signs of attention to the guards. In addition to the old guards regiments (and partly in opposition to them), new ones were formed: Izmailovsky and Horse Guards.

In 1731, to investigate political crimes, the Office of Secret Investigations was established, equated to a collegium and removed from the control of the Senate. Under Anna Ivanovna, the Chancellery became a tool for suppressing those who were dissatisfied with her rule. It is characteristic that a significant part of the cases considered in it, with the use of the so-called interrogation with partiality and torture in the dungeon, fell on representatives of the upper classes.

Cabinet of Ministers. In 1731, “for the best and most decent administration of all state affairs,” the Cabinet of Ministers was formed from three people: Chancellor G.I. Golovkin, Vice-Chancellor A.I. Osterman and real Privy Councilor Prince A.M. Cherkassky. After Golovkin's death, P. I. Yaguzhinsky, A. P. Volynsky, and A. P. Bestuzhev-Ryumin successively took his place. Having crushed the Senate, the Synod, collegiums, the Cabinet always reserved the last word in matters of national importance. Since the mid 30s. three signatures of cabinet ministers were recognized as equivalent signatures of the empress. A prominent role in making managerial decisions at that time was played by the favorite of the Empress, Chief Chamberlain E. Biron, a minor Courland nobleman, who later received the title of Duke of Courland from the Empress. His policy at the royal court went down in history as "Bironism".

Nobles received significant concessions. In 1730, those paragraphs of the decree on single inheritance of 1714 were canceled, which established the principle of inheritance of the estate by one son and thereby limited the right to dispose of landed property. In 1731, the land gentry corps of cadets was established, after which the offspring of the nobility got the opportunity to serve in officer ranks. Since 1736, the terms of military service of the nobles were reduced to 25 years.

However, things in the state went in such a way that they aroused condemnation even among those who were near the throne. Thus, Field Marshal B. Kh. Munnich, the President of the Military Collegium, appreciated by the Empress, was forced to admit that “the Cabinet and, in general, the whole form of government under Anna Ivanovna were imperfect and even harmful to the state.” Arrears have been chronically rising throughout the decade. Temporary workers, both foreigners and Russians, emptied the treasury with impunity. Due to the constant budget deficit, the government was forced to pay salaries to civil officials for some years in Siberian and Chinese goods of poor quality.

At the same time, colossal sums were spent on the maintenance of the court, where magnificent festivities were held endlessly. Discontent covered all sections of society. A reflection of this phenomenon was the case of Artemy Petrovich Volynsky.

CONSPIRACY. In the “General Project for the Correction of Internal State Affairs” drawn up by the conspirators, it was proposed to clear the state apparatus of foreigners and give wide access to representatives of the Russian nobility, restore the leading role of the Senate among government agencies, improve the legal system in the country by codifying laws, establish a university in order to spread education and academies for the clergy. In many ways, the proposals of Volynsky and his comrades anticipated the real policy of enlightened absolutism and were progressive for their time. It is possible that in order to implement his plans, Volynsky provided for the possibility of enthroning the daughter of Peter I, Princess Elizabeth. However, all these intentions were suppressed by Biron and Osterman, who no longer wanted to put up with the zealous cabinet minister. In 1740 Volynsky was arrested and executed. Other members of the seditious circle were also severely punished.

The end of Bironovshchina. In October 1740 Anna Ivanovna died. According to the will, Anna's great-nephew, two-month-old baby Ivan Antonovich, was proclaimed emperor, and E. I. Biron was proclaimed regent. The baby's parents were removed from power. The height to which Biron ascended predetermined his fall. The power-hungry duke of Courland did not suit not only the Russians, but also the Germans. On November 8, 1740, relying on a detachment of 80 guards, Field Marshal B. Kh. Minich overthrew Biron. The German Anna Leopoldovna of Braunschweig, the mother of the proclaimed child-emperor, temporarily became the ruler. Field Marshal Minich himself was soon retired. The leading role in the government passed to Vice-Chancellor Osterman.

The authority of government power, which had become a plaything in the hands of political adventurers, mostly foreigners, fell ever lower. Under these conditions, memories of the great transforming tsar became almost nostalgic.

Elizaveta Petrovna (1741-1761). Hopes for the revival of the glorious traditions of Peter I were increasingly associated with the name of his daughter Elizabeth Petrovna. On the night of November 25, 1741, the grenadier company of the Preobrazhensky Regiment, led by the princess, entered the palace. Representatives of the Braunschweig family were arrested. Elizabeth came to the throne. The palace coup of 1741 was anti-Western in nature; Elizabeth was supported mainly by the lower guards.

Elizaveta Petrovna, from her youth passionately fond of dresses, dances, masquerades, and in her mature years - seriously ill and infirm, was not capable of systematic studies and control over state affairs. Nevertheless, she was not alien to a sound understanding of state interests and practical wisdom, manifested in the ability to find and bring capable and knowledgeable people closer.

The new government immediately had to face difficult problems: upset finances, confusion in the field of legislation and administration, mass escapes of peasants. The government tried to defuse the situation - by a decree of 1741, all arrears for 17 years were forgiven, the size of the poll tax was temporarily reduced by 10 kopecks. In subsequent years, the government tried, without raising the poll tax, to increase state revenues by raising the price of salt and wine. This method of reorienting budget revenues from direct to indirect taxation, practiced in many European countries contributed to the development of commodity-money relations. For the same purposes, the government took some other measures: the destruction in 1754 of internal customs, the restoration of magistrates. In 1754-1762. A special Legislative Commission worked on the drafting of a new code of law. An important aspect of its activities was the revision of part of the legislative material from the point of view of the interests of the merchants, the promotion of commercial and industrial entrepreneurship in the country.

At the origins of most of the useful undertakings of the Elizabethan reign was a prominent statesman P. I. Shuvalov. He sought to direct the attention of government circles to the needs and requirements of the merchants. However, the figure of Shuvalov, a large landowner, breeder, tax-farmer, and playboy, sometimes evoked hostility even in the palace, which undoubtedly complicated the position of Shuvalov the reformer. The main center for the preparation of the main bills, as well as all any significant events of 1741-1761, was the Senate, restored by Elizabeth in the significance that it had under Peter I.

Conference at Elizabeth Petrovna. At the same time, Elizaveta Petrovna did not abandon the practice of imperial advice. Since 1741, the so-called meeting of ministers and generals of 11 people was periodically convened. In 1756, a new supreme body was created - the Conference at the Imperial Court. At the forefront of her work were the development and implementation of countermeasures against Prussia, which Russia faced in the Seven Years' War. The activities of the Conference during the war years covered a wide variety of areas: leadership of the army, finances, personnel issues, as well as matters that exceeded the competence of the Senate. The influence of the Conference was also due to the fact that it included key figures of state administration: the heads of the Foreign Ministry M. I. Vorontsov and A. P. Bestuzhev-Ryumin, Prosecutor General of the Senate N. Yu. I. Shuvalov and the head of the Secret Chancellery A. I. Shuvalov.

Domestic policy under the auspices of the favorites of Elizabeth A. G. Razumovsky and I. I. Shuvalov, it was characterized by a significant expansion of noble privileges, especially in the 50s. 18th century At this time, noble loan banks were established, providing landowners with cheap credit for household and other needs. The nobility received a monopoly on the production of wine. In addition, the general land surveying, carried out by the central government, resulted in a significant increase in noble land ownership. In total, the area of ​​noble land ownership in Russia increased by 50 million acres. Finally, in 1760, a decree was issued allowing landowners to exile serfs to Siberia for "impudent" deeds, with the subsequent reading of the exiled as a recruit handed over to the state.

The first university in Russia. But simultaneously with pro-noble and pro-serf tendencies, the policy of the supreme power showed features characteristic of enlightened absolutism. The most striking act of this kind was the founding in 1755 in Moscow, according to the project of M. V. Lomonosov, of the first university in Russia. The favorite of Elizaveta Petrovna, the enlightened nobleman and philanthropist I. I. Shuvalov, was appointed its curator.

Peter's reign III(December 25, 1761 - June 28 1762). December 25, 1761 Elizaveta Petrovna died. She was succeeded by her nephew Pyotr Fedorovich, the son of Anna Petrovna's elder sister and the Duke of Holstein Karl Friedrich, who ascended the Russian throne under the name of Peter III.

Pyotr Fedorovich, who had been declared heir to the Russian throne at the end of 1741 and brought up at the court of his aunt, was nevertheless ill-prepared for his new role. Superficial education and a poor understanding of Russia, combined with natural impulsiveness, a particular propensity for military drill, undermined the position of the tsar and interfered with the implementation of his good intentions.

The short reign of Peter III was marked by the intensification of all forms of government activity. In less than half a year, a number of decrees were issued, reflecting the urgent need to change the system of power and expand its guardianship functions. Among them were: the destruction of the Secret Chancellery and the cessation of the persecution of schismatics, the abolition of trade monopolies that hampered the development of entrepreneurship, the proclamation of freedom of foreign trade, the transfer of monastic and church estates to the jurisdiction of a special College of Economy.

By a manifesto of February 18, 1762, the nobility was exempted from compulsory public service. This event caused massive rejoicing of the nobles. However, this measure was not enough to ensure the stability of power. The position of Peter III was undermined by his harsh treatment of the highest imperial bureaucracy, associated with the desire to restore loose discipline in the central government, as well as attempts to restore order in the guard, which he compared with the army of the Turkish Janissaries.

Impulsive lawmaking and the desire to personally delve into all matters, which did not always correspond to the practical possibilities and abilities of the emperor himself, significantly complicated his position. These shortcomings could be balanced by collegial supreme body government controlled. However, such a body - the Imperial Council of 9 people was created only at the end of the reign of Peter III, in May 1762, and was no longer able to radically change the situation. By that time, a hostile political group had formed behind the back of the emperor, which overthrew him from the throne. June 28, 1762 The conspiracy was led by the wife of Peter III, Grand Duchess Ekaterina Alekseevna, nee Princess of Anhalt-Zerbst, her favorite G. G. Orlov and his brothers, Field Marshal K. G. Razumovsky, N. I. Panin, tutor of the young Grand Duke Paul, and about 40 guards officers. On July 6, the deposed monarch was killed by his wife's henchmen in Ropsha Castle. Another empress appeared on the Russian throne.

In the period from 1725 to 1762, 6 emperors and empresses were replaced on the Russian throne. The intensity of state reforms during this period slows down. Political instability, due to the frequent change of power and the composition of the political elite, did not allow to concentrate on solving the problems facing Russia.

Public administration, economy and finances were not in the best condition. The most important state problems were not solved for years. The luxury of the imperial court contrasted sharply with the beggarly condition of the overwhelming majority of Russians. A typical example: even half of what was officially spent on the maintenance of the imperial stable was not allocated for the development of education in the country.

However, the state mechanism, launched by the first emperor Peter the Great, continued to work properly. He allowed women to run the empire. Five women, including those of foreign origin, ruled Russia in the 18th century for 70 years. If it were not for the brightest figure of Peter I, the 18th century could rightly be called the female age.

Having taken the royal throne with the help of guardsmen and favorites, the women rulers of Russia created a special institution supreme power and management - favoritism. It consisted in the possibility of a favorite, that is, a favorite of a high-ranking person, in this case the empress, to decisively influence the adoption of state decisions, the implementation or curtailment of state reforms. This left a certain imprint on the political system of the state. Contemporaries noted the haphazard decision-making, often contradicting each other, mediocrity and laziness of the bureaucracy. This is described in detail in the work of Prince M. M. Shcherbatov, which is called "On the damage to morals in Russia."

Anna Ivanovna's favorite, groom Biron, by the grace of the empress, becomes a count, chief chamberlain, and then takes a direct part in government. Another empress, Elizaveta Petrovna, showered honors on her favorite A.G. Razumovsky. The former court chorister began to own huge estates with 100,000 serf souls. Not possessing military and diplomatic talents, he gladly accepted the title of count and the rank of field marshal, granted by the empress. At the same time, Alexei Grigorievich was almost not involved in state affairs.

Six palace coups, carried out in 1725-1762, served as clear evidence of the increased capabilities of the court-bureaucratic opposition and the guard - its strike force. The threat of palace coups put the supreme power in front of the need to take into account the class requirements of the nobility as fully as possible, and also forced them to look for ways to solve state problems that would not be rejected by its most active groups.

22. Transformations of Peter I and their significance for the Russian Empire.

In the history of the Petrine reforms, researchers distinguish two stages: before and after 1715. At the first stage, the reforms were mostly chaotic and were caused primarily by the military needs of the state associated with the conduct of the Northern War, were carried out mainly by violent methods and were accompanied by active state intervention in economic affairs. Many reforms were ill-conceived, hasty in nature, which was caused both by failures in the war and by the lack of personnel, experience, and pressure from the old conservative apparatus of power. At the second stage, when hostilities had already been transferred to enemy territory, the transformations became more systematic. There was a further strengthening of the apparatus of power, manufactories not only served military needs, but also produced consumer goods for the population, state regulation of the economy was somewhat weakened, merchants and entrepreneurs were given a certain freedom of action. Basically, the reforms were subordinated not to the interests of individual estates, but to the state as a whole: its prosperity, well-being and familiarization with Western European civilization. The goal of the reforms was to acquire the role of Russia as one of the leading world powers, capable of competing with Western countries militarily and economically. The main instrument of reform was deliberately applied violence.

Military reform

The main content of the military reform was the creation of a regular Russian army and Russian navy, recruited on the basis of recruitment. Previously existing troops were gradually abolished, and their personnel were used for new formations. The army and navy began to be maintained at the expense of the state. To control the armed forces, instead of orders, the Military Collegium and the Admiralty Collegium were established; the post of commander-in-chief (for wartime) was introduced. A unified training system was established in the army and navy, and military educational institutions (navigation, artillery, and engineering schools) were opened. The Preobrazhensky and Semenovsky regiments, as well as a number of newly opened special schools and the Naval Academy, served for the training of officers. The organization of the armed forces, the main issues of training, methods of warfare were legally enshrined in the Military Charter (1716), the Marine Charter Book (1720). In general, the military reforms of Peter I contributed to the development of military art, were one of the factors that determined the success of the Russian army and fleet in the Northern War.

Reforms in the economy covered agriculture, large and small production, craft, trade and financial policy. Agriculture under Peter I developed slowly, mainly in an extensive way. In the economic sphere, the concept of mercantilism dominated - encouraging the development of domestic trade and industry with an active foreign trade balance. The development of industry was dictated solely by the needs of warfare and was a special concern of Peter. During the first quarter of the 18th century 200 manufactories were created. The main attention was paid to metallurgy, the center of which moved to the Urals. The growth of industrial production was accompanied by the intensification of feudal exploitation, the widespread use of forced labor in manufactories: the use of serfs, bought (possession) peasants, as well as the labor of the state (black-eared) peasantry, which was attributed to the plant as a permanent source of labor. In 1711, craft schools were established at the manufactories. By decrees of 1722, a shop device was introduced in the cities. The creation of workshops testified to the patronage of the authorities to the development of crafts and their regulation. In the field of domestic and foreign trade, a large role was played by the state monopoly on the procurement and sale of basic goods (salt, flax, hemp, furs, lard, caviar, bread, etc.), which significantly replenished the treasury. The creation of merchant "kuppanstvo" and the expansion of trade relations with foreign countries were encouraged in every possible way. The government of Peter paid great attention to the development of waterways - the main mode of transport at that time. Active construction of canals was carried out: the Volga-Don, Vyshnevolotsky, Ladoga, work began on the construction of the Moscow-Volga canal.

financial policy state during the reign of Peter I was characterized by unprecedented tax oppression. The growth of the state budget, necessary for the conduct of the war, an active domestic and foreign policy, was achieved by expanding indirect and increasing direct taxes. Special "profit-makers" headed by A. Kurbatov looked for new sources of income: bath, fish, honey, horse and other taxes were introduced, up to the tax on beards. In total, by 1724 there were up to 40 types of indirect collections. Along with the specified fees, direct taxes were also introduced: recruitment, dragoon, ship and special "fees". Significant incomes were brought by the minting of coins of lesser weight and a decrease in the content of silver in it. The search for new sources of income led to a radical reform of the entire tax system - the introduction of a poll tax, which replaced household taxation. As a result of this, firstly, the amount of tax revenues from peasants almost doubled. Secondly, the tax reform became an important stage in serfdom in Russia, extending it to those sections of the population that were previously free (“walking people”), or could gain freedom after the death of the master (bonded serfs). Thirdly, the passport system was introduced. Every peasant who went to work more than 30 versts from his place of residence had to have a passport indicating the date of return.

Reorganization of public administration.

The strengthening of the absolute monarchy required a radical restructuring and extreme centralization of the entire system of state administration, its higher, central and local bodies. The king was at the head of the state. In 1721, Peter was proclaimed emperor, which meant a further strengthening of the power of the king himself. In 1711, instead of the Boyar Duma and the Council (Council) of Ministers that replaced it since 1701, the Senate was established. It included nine dignitaries closest to Peter I. The Senate was instructed to develop new laws, monitor the country's finances, and control the activities of the administration. In 1722, the leadership of the work of the senators was entrusted to the prosecutor general, whom Peter I called "the sovereign's eye." In 1718 - 1721, the cumbersome and intricate system of command administration of the country was transformed. Instead of fifty orders, whose functions often coincided and did not have clear boundaries, 11 colleges were established. Each collegium was in charge of a strictly defined branch of government. College of Foreign Affairs - foreign relations, Military - by land armed forces, Admiralty - by the fleet, Chamber College - by collecting income, State College - by state expenses, Votchinnaya - by noble land ownership, Manufactory College - by industry, except for the metallurgical one, which was in charge of the Berg College. In fact, as a collegium, there was a Chief Magistrate who was in charge of Russian cities. In addition, there were the Preobrazhensky Prikaz (political investigation), the Salt Office, the Copper Department, and the Land Survey Office. Along with the strengthening of the central administrative apparatus, the reform of local institutions. Instead of the voivodship administration in 1708 - 1715, the provincial system of government was introduced. Initially, the country was divided into eight provinces: Moscow, St. Petersburg, Kyiv, Arkhangelsk, Smolensk, Kazan, Azov and Siberia. They were headed by governors who were in charge of the troops and administration of subordinate territories. Each province occupied a vast territory and was therefore divided into provinces. There were 50 of them (the governor was at the head). Provinces, in turn, were divided into counties. Thus, a single centralized administrative-bureaucratic system of government was formed for the whole country, in which the monarch, who relied on the nobility, played a decisive role. The number of officials has increased significantly. The cost of maintaining the administrative apparatus has also increased. The General Regulations of 1720 introduced a single system of office work in the state apparatus for the whole country.

The Church and the liquidation of the patriarchate.

After the death in 1700 of Patriarch Adrian, Peter I decided not to appoint a new patriarch. Metropolitan Stefan Yavorsky of Ryazan was temporarily placed at the head of the clergy, although he was not vested with patriarchal powers. In 1721, Peter approved the "Spiritual Regulations" developed by his supporter, Bishop Feofan Prokopovich of Pskov. According to the new law, a fundamental church reform, which eliminated the autonomy of the church and completely subordinated it to the state. The patriarchate in Russia was abolished, and a special Theological College was established to manage the church, which was soon transformed into the Holy Governing Synod to give greater authority. He was in charge of purely church affairs: the interpretation of church dogmas, orders for prayers and church services, censorship of spiritual books, the fight against heresies, the management of educational institutions and the removal of church officials, etc. The synod also had the functions of a spiritual court. All the property and finances of the church, the lands assigned to it and the peasants were under the jurisdiction of the Monastic order, subordinate to the Synod. Thus, it meant the subordination of the church to the state.

Social politics.

In 1714, the “Decree on Single Inheritance” was issued, according to which the noble estate was equalized in rights with the boyar estate. The decree marked the final merger of the two estates of feudal lords. Since that time, secular feudal lords began to be called nobles. The decree on single inheritance ordered the transfer of estates and estates to one of the sons. The rest of the nobles had to carry out compulsory service in the army, navy or in the bodies state power. In 1722, the publication of the “Table of Ranks” followed, dividing the military, civil and court services. All positions (both civil and military) were divided into 14 ranks. It was possible to occupy each next rank only by passing all the previous ones. An official who reached the eighth grade (collegiate assessor), or an officer received hereditary nobility (until the middle of the 19th century). The rest of the population, excluding the nobility and the clergy, was obliged to pay tax to the state.

Under Peter I, a new structure of society developed, in which the principle of regulation by state legislation is clearly traced. Reforms in the field of education and culture. The policy of the state was aimed at educating society, reorganizing the education system. Enlightenment at the same time acted as a special value, partly opposed to religious values. Theological subjects at school gave way to natural sciences and technical subjects: mathematics, astronomy, geodesy, fortification, and engineering. The Navigation and Artillery schools (1701), the Engineering School (1712), and the Medical School (1707) were the first to appear. To simplify the learning process, the complex Church Slavonic script was replaced with a civil one. The publishing business was developed, printing houses were created in Moscow, St. Petersburg and other cities. The foundations for the development of Russian science were laid. In 1725, the Academy of Sciences was established in St. Petersburg. A great deal of work has begun to study the history, geography and natural resources of Russia. propaganda scientific knowledge was carried out by the Kunstkamera, opened in 1719, the first national museum of natural history. On January 1, 1700, a new chronology according to the Julian calendar was introduced in Russia. As a result of the calendar reform, Russia began to live in the same time as Europe. There was a radical break in all traditional ideas about the everyday way of life in Russian society. The tsar, by order of order, introduced fermentation, European clothes, and the obligatory wearing of uniforms for military and civil officials. The behavior of young nobles in society was regulated by Western European norms set forth in the translated book “Youth's Honest Mirror”. In 1718, a Decree appeared on holding assemblies with the obligatory presence of women. Assemblies were held not only for fun and entertainment, but also for business meetings. Peter's transformations in the sphere of culture, life and customs were often introduced by violent methods and were of a pronounced political nature. The main thing in these reforms was the observance of the interests of the state.

Significance of reforms: 1. The reforms of Peter I marked the formation of an absolute monarchy, unlike the classical Western one, not under the influence of the genesis of capitalism, balancing the monarch between the feudal lords and the third estate, but on a serf-noble basis.

2. The new state created by Peter I not only significantly increased the efficiency of public administration, but also served as the main lever for the modernization of the country. 3. Based on some trends emerging in the 17th century. in Russia, Peter I not only developed them, but also brought it to a qualitatively higher level in a minimal historical period of time, turning Russia into a powerful state.

The payment for these radical changes was the further strengthening of serfdom, the temporary inhibition of the formation of capitalist relations, and the strongest tax and tax pressure on the population. The repeated increase in taxes led to the impoverishment and enslavement of the bulk of the population. Various social actions - the rebellion of the archers in Astrakhan (1705 - 1706), the uprising of the Cossacks on the Don under the leadership of Kondraty Bulavin (1707 - 1708), in Ukraine and the Volga region - were directed not so much against the transformations as against the methods and means of their implementation.

The historical significance of the reforms of Peter 1. Guys, 2-3 sentences are all you need)

Elena anufrieva

The main result of the totality of Peter's reforms was the establishment of an absolutist regime in Russia, the crowning achievement of which was the change in 1721 of the title of the Russian monarch - Peter declared himself emperor, and the country began to be called the Russian Empire. Thus, what Peter was going for all the years of his reign was formalized - the creation of a state with a coherent system of government, a strong army and navy, a powerful economy that had an impact on international politics. As a result of Peter's reforms, the state was not bound by anything and could use any means to achieve its goals. As a result, Peter came to his ideal state structure - a warship, where everything and everything is subject to the will of one person - the captain, and managed to bring this ship out of the swamp into the stormy waters of the ocean, bypassing all the reefs and shoals.

Russia became an autocratic, military-bureaucratic state, the central role in which belonged to the nobility. At the same time, the backwardness of Russia was not completely overcome, and the reforms were carried out mainly through the most severe exploitation and coercion.

The role of Peter the Great in the history of Russia can hardly be overestimated. No matter how one relates to the methods and style of carrying out transformations, one cannot but admit that Peter the Great is one of the most prominent figures in world history.

In conclusion, we can cite the words of a contemporary of Peter - Nartov:

"... and although Peter the Great is no longer with us, his spirit lives in our souls, and we, who had the happiness of being with this monarch, will die faithful to him and bury our ardent love for the earthly god with us. We proclaim without fear about our father in order that noble fearlessness and truth were learned from him.