Stacking height. Rules for storing various cargoes and methods for stacking them

When placing stacks of cargo in warehouses and sites, it is necessary to provide:

• - passages between stacks of cargo up to 1.2 m high, 1 m wide, and between stacks of greater height - 2 m;
• - passages between stacks and a wall or other barrier 0.7 m wide;
• - passages between stacks, combined with passages through crane and railway tracks, at least 2 m wide;
• - passages for loaders with a width of at least 3.5 m;
• - main passages between groups of stacks with a width of at least 6 m, and for large-capacity containers.

Loads should be placed no closer than 2 m from the outer edge of the end rail head railway track with a storage height of up to 1.2 m and no closer than 2.5 m - when stored on greater height.

The distance from the protruding parts of the crane portal to the load stack must be at least 0.7 m.

Methods for forming stacks must guarantee the safety of work, ensure the safety of cargo and exclude the possibility of their collapse.

The technology for stacking cargo, the machines and auxiliary equipment used must be specified in the RTK and POR.

The height of stacks of cargo when workers are on the stack should not exceed 6 m.

Stacking of loads at a greater height is permitted subject to the development of measures to ensure the safety of workers on the stack and their coordination with the technical labor inspectorate.

Loads should be stacked (disassembled) using a crane while workers are on the stack in layers. The height of the layer during manual laying with dismantling (forming) of the lift should not exceed 1.5 m, without disbanding (forming) the lift - the height of the load in one lift.

It is prohibited to disassemble the stack by removing the lower cargo items in the layer.

The size of the top platform of the stack, as well as the width of the ledge in the tiers (layers) of the cargo must be sufficient for the safe execution of work. The worker must be able to move a distance of at least 5 m from the place where the load is placed (unless there are other instructions regarding its location), and the distance from his location to the edge of the stack (tier) should not be less than 1 m. When performing work on the stack at a distance of less than 1 m from the edge of the stack at a height of more than 3 m from the ground, platform or ledge of the stack, workers must be equipped with and use safety belts with a safety rope and a carabiner. The location for attaching the safety belt carabiner must be indicated by the work manufacturer. If it is impossible to use safety belts, then it is necessary to develop another safe way of work, preventing workers from falling from a height (the use of overpasses, towers, telescopic lifts and other types of equipment that ensure safe conditions labor). When forming a stack in a covered warehouse in a manner that involves workers being on the stack, the distance between the top platform of the stack on which the workers are located and the lowest parts of the warehouse floor, as well as live wires, must be at least 2 m. For safe climbing onto the stack ( stack tier) or a separate cargo piece with a height of more than 1 m, it is necessary to use mobile mechanized ladders or other devices that meet safety requirements, and in their absence, use portable inventory ladders. The length of portable ladders depends on the height of the stack or layer of cargo (h) and must be at least h /0.96+1.0 m, but not more than 5 m. In order to distribute the load on the warehouse floor, prevent deformation and destruction of cargo items, deformation of sling loops and safety of work when slinging (unslinging) cargo with slings, packaged cargo should be placed on pads of rectangular cross-section. The dimensions and number of pads and gaskets, as well as their installation locations, must be justified and indicated in Specifications, as well as in RTK and POR.

Pads and spacers under the load must be placed before the load is delivered to the storage location. The ends of the spacers and pads should not extend beyond the dimensions of the loaded load by more than 0.1 m. It is prohibited to change the position of the spacers and pads under the load hanging above them.

To close the stacks, you need to use serviceable tarpaulins with devices for tying and fastening them. Tarpaulins should be fed onto stacks over 1.5 m high using lifting equipment. The stacks should be closed with tarps using the rolling method, and opened using the rolling method. This work should be performed by at least two workers. When the wind force is more than four points, it is necessary to cover the stacks under the guidance of the work contractor.

1. Materials must be stored in accordance with technological maps warehousing, work plans and labor safety instructions.

2. Storage of materials should be carried out only in specially designated areas; it is prohibited to block approaches to fire-fighting equipment, hydrants and exits from premises.

3. PROHIBITED stack cargo on faulty racks and reload racks

4. Storing cargo (including at loading and unloading areas and in temporary storage areas) close to the walls of the building, columns and equipment, stack to stack is not allowed.

5. When storing cargo, measures and means must be provided to ensure the stability of the stacked cargo.

6. When forming a stack, it is advisable to place heavier loads in the lower rows.

7. If an incorrectly folded stack is discovered, take measures to disassemble it and stack it again, eliminating the noticed defect.

8. Manually adjusting tilted or unstable loads is permitted if this does not threaten the safety of the loader himself and the people working next to him.

9. Leaning stacks may only be dismantled during the day, in accordance with a previously developed work method under the supervision of the person responsible for loading and unloading operations.

10. Dismantling of stacks must be done only from the top, evenly along the entire length. PROHIBITED disassemble the stack by selecting the lower cargo spaces in the layer.

11. Work on two adjacent stacks at the same time is not allowed.

12. Methods of stacking cargo must ensure the stability of stacks, packages and cargo contained in them.; mechanized dismantling of stacks and lifting of cargo using mounted grippers of lifting and transport equipment; safety of those working on or near the stack; the possibility of using and normal functioning of protective equipment for workers and fire fighting equipment; air circulation during natural or artificial ventilation closed warehouses.

13. People are not allowed to be present or move around Vehicle in the area of ​​possible falling cargo during loading and unloading from rolling stock, as well as when moving cargo with lifting and transport equipment.

14. Installation of materials must be carried out without leaning (leaning) on ​​products, fences and fencing elements.

15. In open areas in winter time To avoid subsidence and disruption of the vertical position of the stack, it is necessary to first clear the area of ​​debris and snow.

16. When placing cargo (except for bulk cargo), measures are taken to prevent them from pinching or freezing to the surface of the site.

17. When placing stacks of cargo in warehouses and sites, it is necessary to comply following conditions storage:

The aisles between rows of stacks or racks must be at least 1 m;

The aisles between stacks or racks in a row must be at least 0.8 m;

The passage width is at least 3.5 m;

The distance between the wall or column and the load must be at least 1 m;

There must be at least 1 m between the ceiling and the load;

There must be at least 0.5 m between the lamp and the load (in height).

Passages between stacks, combined with passages through crane and railway tracks, at least 2 m wide.

18. The height of the stack during manual loading should not exceed 3 m, and when using mechanisms for lifting the load - 6 m.

19. The distance between rows of stacks must be determined taking into account the possibility of installing containers in a stack, removing containers from a stack using load-handling devices, the mechanization means used and ensuring the necessary fire breaks.

20. For the safe movement of lifting mechanisms when laying stacks, it is necessary to position them in such a way that the distance between the stacks exceeds the width of the loaded transport (forklifts, trolleys, etc.) by at least 0.8 m, and if it is necessary to ensure oncoming traffic - transport width plus 1.5 m.

21. The distance from the protruding parts of the crane portal to the load stack must be at least 0.7 m.

22. Loads (except for ballast unloaded for track work) with a stack height of up to 1.2 m must be located from the outer edge of the head of the railway or ground crane track closest to the load at a distance of at least 2 m, and with a higher stack height - at least 2.5 m.

23. Loads stored in bulk should be stacked with a slope slope corresponding to the angle of repose of the stored material. If necessary, protective grilles should be installed.

24. Cargo in containers and bales are stacked in stable stacks, cargo in bags is stacked in a bandage. Each row that increases in height must be laid with an incursion of 50 cm inward on all sides

25. Place cargo in torn and faulty containers in stacks PROHIBITED.

26. Place loads in boxes in stacks in a bandage.

27. Packages from boxes various sizes can be stacked only if the stack is stable and level. When unloading or loading boxes manually, in order to avoid injury to hands, it is necessary to first inspect each place, hammer in the protruding ends of the iron strapping and protruding nails.

28. If it is necessary to remove a box from the top of a stack, you must first make sure that the load lying next to it is in a stable position and cannot fall.

29. It is prohibited to move the load along a horizontal plane by pushing it by the edges.

30. Boxes in closed warehouses placed to ensure the width of the main passage is at least 3-5 m.

31. Oversized and heavy cargo must be stacked in one row on chocks.

32. PROHIBITED use of linings and gaskets of round section.

33. To service stacks more than 1.5 m high, use portable ladders. Climbing onto stacks on protruding products or spacers is not allowed.

34. The ratio of the height of the stack to the length of the shortest side of the stacked container should not be more than:

For non-separable containers: 6;

For folding containers (assembled): 4.5.

35. The load on the lower container of the stack should not exceed the value specified in the working drawings.

36. It is allowed to store foundation beams - in a stack, laid in a working position with a parallel arrangement, in each tier there are at least two beams, the height is no more than two tiers.

37. It is allowed to stack coal products on linings and gaskets:

Coal blocks - no more than two tiers,

Hearth blocks - no more than four tiers.

38. Cargo on the territory of the branch of RUS - Engineering LLC in Novokuznetsk must be stacked as follows:

Small diameter pipes (up to 100 mm) and rod reinforcement - on racks or in inventory metal brackets;

Pipes with a diameter of up to 300 mm - in a stack up to 3 m high on pads and gaskets with end stops;

Pipes with a diameter of more than 300 mm - in a stack up to 3 m high in a saddle without gaskets;

The bottom row of pipes must be laid on supports, reinforced with inventory metal shoes or end stops, securely fastened to the supports with bolts;

Cast iron pipes in a stack no more than 1.5 m high, and they are laid alternately lengthwise and crosswise, in each row with sockets in opposite directions;

Crossbars, columns - in a stack up to 2 m high;

Crane beams and purlins - in a stack, up to 1.2 m high;

Refractories in the warehouse - in bags on pallets - in a stack of no more than two tiers, the height of the stack is not more than 2 m; in the workshop for current consumption - on level areas, the height of the stack should not exceed 1.5 m;

Drums with cables, ropes and other large cylindrical objects must be strengthened with holding devices (wedges, slats, boards, etc.) to prevent them from rolling out during installation. In this case, loads should only be placed on flat pads;

Place machine parts with protruding sharp working parts in stacks or bags so as to exclude the possibility of injury to people who come into contact with them during operation;

Place car and tractor tires on rack shelves only in a vertical position.

39. Stacks and racks with metal products should be located parallel to railway tracks or main driveways.

40. PROHIBITED store rolled metal and metal constructions, workpieces in the area where power lines are located without agreement with the organization operating these lines.

41. Placement of rolled metal into a stack must be done on pads previously laid on the floor. Railway sleepers, beams, etc. can be used as linings. Laying rolled metal on the floor of a warehouse or on the ground of a site without pads PROHIBITED.

42. The height of a stack or rack during manual laying of rolled metal should not exceed 1.5 m. The height of the stack does not exceed 2 m with a hook grab and 4 m with an automated load grab.

43. Laying of rolled products should be done so that the ends of the end sides of the stacks located near the aisles are laid out evenly, regardless of the length of the bars, pipes, etc. being laid.

44. The height of a stack or rack during mechanized laying of rolled metal products depends on the permissible load on the floor and the laying pattern and is determined by a capacity of 20 tons from the condition of ensuring the stability of the stack or rack and the safety of the work performed by the mechanisms. In this case, special platforms, devices or ladders must be provided to allow the slinger to safely climb to the upper zone of the stack, rack and sling the load without being on the metal.

45. When laying rolled metal in a stack or on a rack, it is necessary to place metal square spacers with a thickness of at least 40 mm between the bundles and bundles to allow the slings to be released from under them, as well as for greater stability of the stored cargo. The ends of the spacers should not protrude beyond the stack or rack by more than 100 mm.

46. ​​Rolled metal stacked on racks should not exceed the maximum permissible load on them. The maximum permissible load on the rack shelves is indicated on each rack.

47. To avoid rolled metal rolling PROHIBITED filling the cell above the rack racks.

48. Long and shaped rolled products must be stacked in stacks, Christmas tree or rack racks. Pipes should be stacked in rows separated by spacers.

49. The stacking height of rolled products when stored in Christmas tree racks is up to 4.5 m when stacked with forklifts. The stacking height when stored in rack racks is up to 2 m.

50. Blanks of measured length from long and shaped rolled products, semi-finished products and finished goods placed in a container.

51. Thick-sheet steel (steel with a thickness of 4 mm or more) must be stacked on edge in racks with support platforms inclined towards the support posts, or flat on wooden pads with a thickness of at least 200 mm.

52. Thin sheet steel (steel up to 4 mm thick) should be laid flat on wooden pads placed across the stack of sheets. Thin-sheet steel in bundles weighing up to 5 tons can be stacked on edge in special racks so that bends do not form at the ends.

53. Metal products supplied in reels (steel rope, wire, etc.) must be stored indoors and laid on a wooden floor on the end in no more than two tiers.

54. Cold-rolled strip is placed on flat wooden pallets into frame racks. The placement is done in tiers, with each subsequent tier shifted relative to the previous one by half the radius of the skein. The third tier is laid in the same way as the first, the fourth - like the second, and so on. Skeins in the upper tier are not placed in the outermost places.

55. Rolls of rolled wire should be laid on wood flooring in bulk with a height of no more than 1.6 m.

56. Electrodes are placed in a dry, closed room in original packaging on pallets in frame racks.

57. Long-rolled metal products (angles, beams, channels) must be stacked in a bandage that ensures the stability of the stack. They are laid shelf on shelf or with their edges on the neck of the underlying row. Place the first row on wooden pads with the edges of the shelves down, the second row with the edges of the shelves on the necks of the first row of beams (channels), the subsequent rows are made in the same way with the edges of the shelves tied.

58. To give the stack greater stability and the possibility of its quick disassembly, transverse spacers are installed every 5 - 6 rows in height. The distances between them are determined based on conditions that exclude the occurrence of residual deflections of rolled metal.

Related information.

Piece cargo, transported in containers or without packaging, are stored at ports in covered warehouses or in open areas in stacks certain forms and sizes. The cargo stack is formed depending on how the cargo arrives - individually or in packages. The area in a covered warehouse or open area intended for storing cargo must be cleared of debris, and the entrances to the area must be free. Regardless of the type of surface covering or warehouse floor, all cargo must be placed on dry pallets wooden boards, boards, bars, logs, etc. The dimensions, shape and height of the cargo containers are determined by the specific characteristics of the cargo, its shelf life and the condition of the warehouse area. Upon arrival at the port, each shipment of cargo is stored separately from one another. Stacks are formed by carload or by bill of lading; their shapes and sizes are determined by the characteristics of the cargo and the size of the storage areas in the port. In all cases of storage, it must be possible to check the condition of all cargo and approach to any place in the stack; the rules must be followed fire safety and occupational safety requirements. In covered warehouses, the distance between stacks and warehouse walls is 0.7 m; between stacks of cargo - at least 2 m; the width of transverse and longitudinal passages is assumed to be 3.5 m for the passage of loaders; main passages between groups of stacks - 6 m. The height of cargo storage depends on the strength of the container, the method of work and the permissible load on the warehouse floor. When manually stacking cargo, the height of the stack is usually 1.75-2 m, when mechanized - 3.5-5 m.

The formation and dismantling of a stack using a crane when port workers are on the stack should be done in layers over its entire area, and depending on the type of cargo and type of packaging, the following recesses are allowed: for bagged cargo - up to 1.5 m; bales (except rubber) - up to 1 m; rubber - up to 4 bales (according to stacking height); small box loads - up to 1.2 m; large boxes - 1 box; roll-and-barrel cargo - 1 place; cargo in packages - 1 package.

When storing piece goods, you should choose the design of the stack, determine its dimensions and the relative position of the stacks in the warehouse area. To resolve these issues, it is necessary to know the nature of the packaging of the cargo, the features of the counting of cargo packages, air humidity and the condition of the cargo itself. A stack of box bales consists of stacks, rows and tiers (Fig. 20). Cargo items of the same shape and size, stacked one on top of the other vertically, make up a stack of stacks, located along the length - its longitudinal rows, and along the width - transverse. The horizontal layer of the stack, limited by the height of the packages, is a tier or layer.

General cargo correct geometric shape When storing individually, they are stacked in straight stacks (in even rows), i.e. Cargo items of the same size are stacked so that each overlying item coincides with the item lying below. In high stacks, a collapse is possible due to the fragility of the container or improper placement of cargo items. To avoid this, it is necessary to lay the outer rows of stacks with a slight slope towards the middle, for which purpose prismatic spacers are placed under them or “ligations” of the rows of the stack are made through two or three tiers with boards 2.5 cm thick. If there are no spacers, the stacks are laid out with ledges or offset to center of the stack for half the cargo space. When forming a stack, to ensure greater strength, the loads are stacked crosswise, reverse laying, tee or pentad. Cargo in faulty containers should be stored only in specially designated areas in separate stacks one row or bag high. Piece-by-piece storage of cargo has a number of disadvantages: the participation of a large number of workers V warehouse operations, high labor intensity of transshipment work, short service life of containers and significant losses of cargo due to numerous transshipments. With batch storage, these disadvantages are eliminated. There are various ways to form cargo into packages on flat pallets. The warehousing process is carried out by machines. Packages in the warehouse are installed at a height of up to four tiers. If the pallets are loaded with light cargo and their carrying capacity is not fully used, the packages can be installed in five tiers with a stack height of up to To ensure stability of the stack, the packages must be stacked in ledges. Storage of bagged cargo. When storing sack cargo, the bags are placed in closed, dry and clean warehouses separately from cargo with a specific odor. It is allowed to store bagged cargo in open areas, but the stacks must be covered with a tarpaulin. In all cases, stacks are formed on stockpiles. Stacking of sack cargo is carried out in the following ways: direct laying; with an offset to the floor of the bag, starting from the height of the stack; reverse laying, or crosswise; cells - tee, five, well. Well laying provides good ventilation cargo and is used if the cargo in bags is wet and there is a danger of it warming up and spoiling. With the development of package transportation, ports offer various ways forming bags into bags on flat pallets and in sling containers. Depending on the size of the bags, 15-60 bags can be placed on a pallet in 3-8 tiers. On the pallet, the bags are arranged in twos, threes in a bandage, four, five in a bandage, six in a bandage, eight in a bandage. Packages in sling containers can be formed similarly. Such packages are stacked 3-4 tiers high. Storage of box loads . The conditions for storing cargo in boxes depend on the properties of the cargo. Most light weight boxes are stored indoors, while heavy duty and oversized boxes generally are not. required. When forming a stack individually, the boxes are stacked using the direct laying method or in a cage. Should be considered permissible loads per 1 m2 of warehouse or pier flooring. By special rules storing boxes of glass. Packages of box cargo are formed by stacking boxes crosswise, tee-wise, or five-way, depending on the size of the boxes and the platforms on which they are placed. The boxes are placed in bags in parallel rows, tied together. When packing goods into cardboard boxes It is necessary to protect the corners of the package with cuttings of boards. When storing boxed cargo in packages formed on flat pallets, the latter are stacked in stacks on top of each other.

Storage of bale cargo . Cargo in bales makes up about 15-20% of the total volume of packaged cargo transshipped in sea ​​ports. Most bale cargo is affected atmospheric precipitation and is afraid of contamination, so they must be stored in closed warehouses. For example, cotton, linen and other fibrous goods should generally be stored in dry warehouses or under sheds. Storage in open areas is also allowed, but the bales must be laid on special flooring and. the stacks are securely covered. Bale loads are stacked for the most part in the same way as box loads, however, due to the fact that cotton and other fibrous loads are classified as hazardous, appropriate fire safety regulations must be observed when storing them. Storage of roll-and-barrels cargo . Features of the formation of stacks of cargo in this category are determined by the properties of the contents of the barrels, their shape (cylindrical or conical), the location of the stopper (the stopper in the barrel should be at the top) and the means of mechanization with which the load is stacked. Drum loads are stacked in two ways; with installation of barrels at the end ( vertical position) or onto the generatrix (in a horizontal position). When stored on the end, the lower tier barrels must rest on the floor with the entire end part. The storage of barrels on the generatrix is ​​carried out in even rows with spacers made of boards under each tier and wedging of the outer rows: with a “tee” - the barrels of the upper tier are placed in the recesses between the barrels of the lower one; “five-fold” - the upper tier barrel rests on four lower barrels. Container storage. The development of container transportation required the construction of specialized berths - container terminals(Fig. 23). The storage areas of sea container terminals reach 500 hectares and are equipped with high-performance transshipment equipment. The sea cargo front, where container ships are loaded (unloaded), usually has one to three berths located in a line. Its width reaches 15-50 m. Warehouse technological areas on the territory are planned to be of considerable depth (up to 1000 m). Depending on the technology used for cargo operations, a storage area and a container reception and delivery area are allocated in the warehouse technological area, container storage areas are located, special lanes are located for the movement of reloading machines to the sea cargo front within the technological areas. Picking warehouses are covered premises with an area of ​​10-40 thousand m2, most often located outside the terminal territory. The design of picking warehouses is very diverse in terms of layout and the presence of ramps. The height of the floor level of warehouses ensures processing through walkways containers standing on the chassis. At warehouses, arriving cargo is unloaded, sorted and assembled for loading into one-way containers. Warehouses are equipped with radio communications and television cameras that allow monitoring the progress of work.

When placing stacks of cargo in warehouses and sites, it is necessary to provide:

Passages between stacks of cargo up to 1.2 m high, 1 m wide, and between stacks of greater height - 2 m;

Passages between stacks and a wall or other barrier 0.7 m wide;

Passages between stacks, combined with passages through crane and railway tracks, at least 2 m wide;

Driveways for loaders with a width of at least 3.5 m;

Main passages between groups of stacks are at least 6 m wide, and for large-capacity containers.

Loads should be stacked no closer than 2 m from the outer edge of the head of the outermost rail of the railway track when storing at a storage height of up to 1.2 m and no closer than 2.5 m when storing at a greater height.

The distance from the protruding parts of the crane portal to the load stack must be at least 0.7 m.

Methods for forming stacks must guarantee the safety of work, ensure the safety of cargo and exclude the possibility of their collapse.

The technology for stacking cargo, the machines and auxiliary equipment used must be specified in the RTK and POR.

The height of stacks of cargo when they are formed with the help of machines is limited by the physical and mechanical properties of the cargo, the strength of the container, the technical characteristics of the machines with which the stack is formed, the dimensions of the warehouses and the permissible loads on the warehouse covering, as well as the requirements of current regulatory documents for the design and placement of cargo on warehouses

The stack height of each specific cargo must be justified and indicated in the Technical Specifications, as well as in the RTK and POR.

The height of stacks of cargo when workers are on the stack should not exceed 6 m.

Stacking of loads at a greater height is permitted subject to the development of measures to ensure the safety of workers on the stack and their coordination with the technical labor inspectorate.

Loads should be stacked (disassembled) using a crane while workers are on the stack in layers. The height of the layer during manual laying with dismantling (forming) of the lift should not exceed 1.5 m, without disbanding (forming) the lift - the height of the load in one lift.

It is prohibited to disassemble the stack by removing the lower cargo items in the layer.

The size of the top platform of the stack, as well as the width of the ledge in the tiers (layers) of the cargo must be sufficient for the safe execution of work. The worker must be able to leave

at a distance of at least 5 m from the place where the cargo is placed (unless there are other instructions on its location), and the distance from its location to the edge of the stack (tier) should not be less than 1 m.

When performing work on a stack at a distance of less than 1 m from the edge of the stack at a height of more than 3 m from the ground, platform or ledge of the stack, workers must be equipped with and use safety belts with a safety rope and a carabiner. The location for attaching the safety belt carabiner must be indicated by the work manufacturer.

If it is impossible to use safety belts, then it is necessary to develop another safe method of performing work that prevents workers from falling from a height (the use of trestles, towers, telescopic lifts and other types of equipment that ensure safe working conditions).

When forming a stack in a covered warehouse in a manner that involves workers being on the stack, the distance between the top platform of the stack on which the workers are located and the lowest parts of the warehouse floor, as well as live wires, must be at least 2 m.

To safely climb onto a stack (tier of a stack) or a separate cargo piece with a height of more than 1 m, it is necessary to use mobile mechanized ladders or other devices that meet safety requirements, and in their absence, use portable inventory ladders. The length of portable ladders depends on the height of the stack or load layer (h) and must be at least h /0.96+1.0 m, but not more than 5 m.

In order to distribute the load on the warehouse floor, prevent deformation and destruction of cargo packages, deformation of sling loops and safety of work when slinging (unslinging) cargo with slings, packaged cargo should be placed on pads of rectangular cross-section.

The dimensions and number of pads and gaskets, as well as the location of their installation, must be justified and indicated in the Technical Specifications, as well as in the RTK and POR.

Pads and spacers under the load must be placed before the load is delivered to the storage location. The ends of the gaskets and linings should not extend beyond the dimensions of the stacked cargo by more than 0.1 m.

It is prohibited to change the position of pads and gaskets under a load hanging above them.

To close the stacks, you need to use serviceable tarpaulins with devices for tying and fastening them. Tarpaulins should be loaded onto a stack with a height of more than 1.5 m using lifting equipment. The stacks should be closed with tarps using the rolling method, and opened using the rolling method. This work should be performed by at least two workers. When the wind force is more than four points, it is necessary to cover the stacks under the guidance of the work contractor.

Fastening of tarpaulins on a stack should be done in accordance with the RTK and POR.

Warehousing and storage methods dangerous goods must meet the requirements current Rules transportation of dangerous goods river transport and other documents regulating the transportation and storage of these goods.

Cargo of animal origin must be stored in accordance with the Rules for the transportation of animals, products and raw materials of animal origin.

Cargo in faulty containers and packaging should be stored in specially designated areas in separate stacks.

Work on transshipment of goods in faulty containers and packaging must be carried out under the guidance of the work manufacturer.

TYPICAL TECHNOLOGICAL CARD (TTK)

LOADING AND UNLOADING AND STORAGE OF CARGO

STORAGE, SLINGING, LOADING AND UNLOADING TIMBER MATERIALS

1 AREA OF USE

1 AREA OF USE

A standard flow chart has been developed for storing, slinging, loading and unloading timber.

The TTK is intended to familiarize workers and engineers with the rules for the production of work, as well as for the purpose of using it in the development of work production projects, construction organization projects, and other organizational and technological documentation.

2. GENERAL PROVISIONS

Basic storage instructions

1. Materials and equipment should be placed on leveled and compacted areas, and in winter, on areas cleared of snow and ice.

Removal from storage areas must be organized surface waters through drainage ditches.

2. In the warehouse, between stacks, a passage of at least 1.0 m wide should be left, and when vehicles move through the storage area, a passage of at least 3.5 m wide should be left.

3. Products must be stored in stacks according to the same marks; the inscriptions of the marks should be facing towards the aisles and a gap of 5-10 cm should be left between them.

Stacks must be equipped with signs facing the aisles indicating the quantity and type of product.

4. Pads and gaskets in stacks should be placed in the same vertical plane, near the mounting loops, and their thickness when storing panels, blocks, etc. there should be 20 mm more than the protruding mounting loops.

Application of round gaskets during storage building materials stacking is prohibited.

5. When performing work on a stack with a height of more than 1.5 m, it is necessary to use portable inventory ladders.

6. It is prohibited to lean (lean) materials and products against fences and elements of temporary and permanent structures.

7. The distance from stacks of materials and equipment to the edges of excavations (pits, trenches) must be determined based on the stability of the slopes (fastenings), as a rule, outside the collapse prism, but not less than 1.0 m from the edge of the natural slope or fastening of the excavation.

8. Materials and products should be stored no closer than 3.5 m from the building under construction.

9. When storing materials and products near railway tracks, the distance between the stacks and the nearest rail must be at least 2 m.

Timber storage

The storage area is cleared of dry grass, bark, and wood chips. The spacers are installed symmetrically to the longitudinal axis of the stack at a distance from the ends of the logs no more than 1 m on each side. Timber is laid with butts and tops in opposite directions and aligned with one side of the stack.

Block packages and block kits must contain lumber (blanks) of the same species, thickness, width and grade. Overlapping lumber is not allowed.

Round and sawn timber stored in stacks should be placed on stacked bases made of antiseptic pads (Fig. 1, 2) or prefabricated reinforced concrete elements with a height of at least 0.35 m.

Fig.1. Method of stacking block packages of round timber

Timber must be stacked correctly. The dimensions of round timber stacks should not exceed the length of the log in width and 100 m in length. Stacks should be formed into groups. The number of stacks in one group should not exceed 12 with a maximum group length of 150 m and a width of 15 m.

Fig.2. Lumber stacking base

The gaps between stacks in one group must be at least 2 m (Fig. 3).

Fig.3. Arrangement of timber stacks in the warehouse (four stacks in a group)

During long-term storage, timber must be stacked and sorted in accordance with GOST 2292-88; In this case, the following requirements and rules must be observed:

Store round timber in stacks (Fig. 4), which ensure natural drying of the wood; install stops between the rows of timber against rolling out;

Fig.4. Round timber stack

Deciduous wood should be stacked before wood coniferous species;

In case of dry storage method, debarked round materials should be placed in normal stacks, in which the assortments are stacked tightly in rows, or in sparse stacks with a distance between assortments in a row of at least 50 mm, with spacers made of healthy wood between the rows;

Lumber arriving at the warehouse in the summer should be stacked immediately if delivery is made in block packages, or no later than two days if delivery is made in bulk; at the same time, store pine lumber separately from spruce lumber;

Sawn timber of the highest grades (up to and including the second grade) with a moisture content of less than 25%, as well as dry lumber of hard deciduous species of the first grade, should be stored under sheds or in closed ventilated warehouses; dry lumber of other grades should be stored in open storage areas in dense stacks that provide protection from atmospheric conditions. precipitation;

Lumber with a moisture content of more than 25% should be stored in stacks that ensure natural drying; to protect stacks of lumber from exposure to direct sunlight and precipitation, install a continuous roof over the stacks;

Fig.5. Lumber

Fig.6. Dry timber, sleepers for manual laying

3. ORGANIZATION AND TECHNOLOGY OF WORK EXECUTION

Storage of logs and lumber

Logs and timber are stored in stacks under open air, and lumber intended for carpentry, parquet, finishing works, - under a canopy. Stacks of logs are laid on pads with a cross-section of at least 250x250 mm. The dimensions of the stacks depend on the type of warehouse and its equipment. For manual stacking, the height of the stack can be taken as 2-3 m, for mechanized laying 8-10 m, length 100-120 m. The width of the stack is determined maximum length logs The distance between individual stacks must be at least 1 m. Between groups of stacks, gaps with a width of at least 10 m are installed. Logs are stacked according to forest species, grade and thickness in various ways: cellular (Fig. 7, A), ordinary with gaskets (see Fig. 7, b), ordinary without gaskets (see Fig. 7, V), batch (see Fig. 7, G) in stacks.

Fig.7. Storage of logs and lumber:

A- cellular; b- ordinary with gaskets; V- ordinary without gaskets; G- batch; d- straight; e- cross stack

In a cage stack, the logs of each top row are placed perpendicular to the logs of each bottom row. This method of laying is mainly used for fastening unlined or stacked stacks (see Fig. 7, G). In a row stack, logs are stacked in parallel rows, separated from each other by spacers 60-80 mm thick. Row stacks have good air access and are convenient for loading. The batch stack is stored in separate rhombic or rectangular bags, which are separated by spacers. The advantage of this type of stacks is the convenience and speed of slinging logs in large quantities, maximum crane loading, but the disadvantage is the significant need for spacers. Bagged and unlined stacks are protected from rolling out with stops (see Fig. 7, A, G).

Lumber is stored straight (see Fig. 7, d) or cross (see Fig. 7, e) in stacks according to species, grade and thickness of wood. When laying directly between tiers of lumber, spacers 25-30 mm thick and 50-75 mm wide are placed every 1-2 m. To ensure through ventilation, lumber with high humidity is laid in horizontal rows with an interval of 150 mm, average humidity - 100 mm, and dry - 50 mm. The height of a manual stack should not exceed 3 m, and a mechanized stack should not exceed 8 m. Gaps of at least 2 m are left between stacks, and gaps between groups of stacks are at least 6 m.

Slinging logs, lumber and wooden products

Slinging logs and lumber. When loading and unloading, logs and lumber are slung using lifting means. Universal and lightweight slings are considered the simplest, most reliable and cheapest. Lifting logs with universal slings is shown in Fig. 8. The disadvantage of this method is the length of time it takes to hook and unfasten the load.

Fig.8. Log slinging:

A- universal slings; b- lightweight slings with a free hook; V- traverse with self-opening hinges; G- grab-traverse; 1 - steel ropes with loops; 2 - chains; 3 - hinges; 4 - folding hooks; 5 - weights; 6 - traverse; 7 - rocker; 8 - traverse beam; 9 - hook; 10 - lightweight sling; 11 - earring

For slinging logs and lumber, you can successfully use a sling with a free hook that can easily move along the rope depending on the size of the load being lifted. After lowering and stowing logs or lumber, the sling loop is quickly removed from the movable hook and easily pulled out from under the load. The device is very convenient to use and easy to manufacture.

A device with self-opening hinges consists of steel ropes with hinges, chains, folding hooks that rotate at hinges under the influence of loads, and a crossbeam suspended on the crane hook. The release of the logs occurs automatically after lowering the hook and placing them in place. In this case, the ropes, freed from tension, fall down. The folding hooks, under the influence of the weight of the weights, rotate in the hinges, and the loop of ropes slides off the hooks. To completely free the logs from the ropes, you need to lift the crane hook and pull the ends of the rope out from under the load.

Loading and unloading logs in batches. The advantage of the batch method of slinging logs is the maximum use of the power of lifting cranes. When loading and unloading logs in packages, it is advisable to use a special cross-beam gripper with two long lightweight slings.

To sling a package placed on a platform or in a stack, two diagonally located sling loops are removed from the traverse hooks, after which the crane hook is raised and the slings are pulled until they are completely pulled out from under the load.

Long round timber is bundled using multi-turn flexible slings. In these slings, the lower load-bearing part consists of short links made of strip steel and connected by quadrangular frames. The upper closing part is a chain with a lever lock. Load rings are attached to the end links of the load-bearing part. The cross-section of the package is oval. When placed in a carriage, it is flattened, ensuring good use of its capacity. Loading capacity of the sling is 5 tons, dead weight is 15 kg, maximum weight of the package is 10 tons, length of logs in the package is 4.5-6.5 m.

Piece-by-piece transportation of large-diameter logs is carried out using pincer grips or special hooks. The pincer gripper consists of a pair of levers and a traverse and is suitable for lifting one or two logs. A grab with pointed hooks attached in pairs to a group sling simultaneously lifts two, four, six or more short but thick logs. Logs are grabbed with pincer grips, they are unslinged using semi-automatic grips, and slinging with sharpened hooks is done manually.

Slinging boards, beams and sleepers. To sling such loads, in addition to conventional lifting means, a frame grip is used (Fig. 9). It consists of a frame, clamps, rope or chain braces. Suspensions are attached to the frame. The gripper is lowered onto a package of material intended for lifting, previously laid on pads.

Fig.9. Slinging boards, beams, sleepers with a frame grip:

1 - frame; 2 - clamps; 3 - chain stretchers; 4 - pendants

Metal bars are placed under the package, the ends of which are threaded into the loops of the pendants. The lifted load is tightly compressed by the levers, protecting it from falling apart when rocking. Packages of lumber that are not tied with rigid or semi-rigid devices can be handled using a special gripping device. The gripper consists of two articulated four-bars connected at the top I-beam, and at the bottom - a U-shaped beam, covered with wood and serving as a clamp. In the middle part, the hinge system has two axles, to which hooks are suspended on chains. The ends of the slings are put on the hooks; their length should be equal to the perimeter of the package. The upper beam is suspended from the crane hook. When lifting, each four-link tends to fold and its lower beam presses on the package, ensuring its safe and reliable overload. The lifting capacity of the lifting device is 5 tons.

Reloading of packages of long round timber. To reload packages of round timber in semi-rigid slings, a semi-automatic gripping device is used, which consists of a traverse, which is suspended on the hook of a crane by means of cables and a ring. The hooks that engage with the package are attached to chains suspended from the bottom of the crossbeam. Two shafts are mounted in the traverse frame, on which levers with control cables are mounted. The shafts are connected by gear sectors and return springs. To control the hooks, a lock is installed on the traverse, which is connected to the shaft. When not working, the levers, under the influence of the mass of the load, are lowered to the lowest position, and the cables weaken. The hooks are free and, when aimed at the package, are inserted into the rings of a semi-rigid sling. After strapping, the package is moved by crane to a warehouse or rolling stock. When placed in place, the traverse is lowered down. In this case, the load chains weaken, the levers rotate under the action of springs, the rods rise and fix the lock in the upper position. When lifting the traverse, the control cables are tensioned and disengage the hooks from the sling eyes, and the grip is released from the load.

Overload short-length round timber. To reload short cargo - round timber - slings (Fig. 10) and containers are used. Special slings are pre-placed in measuring machines. The sling consists of two ropes. One of them with loops and thimbles at both ends is placed under the bag. Hooks with rollers in the eye of another rope are inserted into the loops of the first. During the lifting process, the bag is tightened. The rope is released during the process of putting the package in place by removing one of the hooks from the loop of the first rope.

Fig. 10. Handling of short-length round timber: A- slings pre-laid in a measuring machine; b- tightening of the package during the lifting process; V- grip with a “donuga” container; 1 - steel sling; 2 - traverse; 3 - rods; 4 - hooks that hook tubular angles at the bottom of the container

When reloading packages of round timber in special “donugi” containers, four steel slings are used, attached to a traverse suspended on a crane hook. Round steel rods are suspended from the bottom of the slings, which hook into tubular angles at the bottom of the container. The length of the rods must correspond to the height of the container.

Figure 11 shows methods of storing timber. When storing round timber (see Fig. 11, A) the storage area is cleared of dry grass, bark, wood chips or covered with a layer of sand, earth or gravel at least 150 mm thick. The spacers are installed symmetrically to the longitudinal axis of the stack no further than 1 m from the ends of the logs on each side. Timber is laid with butts and tops in opposite directions and aligned with one side of the stack. The ends of the timber should not protrude more than 0.5 m.

Fig. 11. Timber storage:

A- round wood; b- row laying of lumber; V- laying lumber in cages; G- dry timber, sleepers for manual laying; 1 - emphasis; - lining length; - length of lumber

Cargo stowage methods must ensure:

Stability of stacks, packages and loads in stacks;

Mechanized dismantling of stacks and lifting of cargo using mounted grippers of lifting and transport equipment;

Safety of workers on or near the stack;

Possibility of using and normal functioning of protective equipment for workers and fire fighting equipment;

Circulation of air flows during natural and artificial ventilation in closed warehouses;

Compliance with requirements for security zones of power lines and nodes engineering communications and energy supply.

4. WORK QUALITY REQUIREMENTS

Requirements for storing lumber

Storage areas for forest materials should be located in non-watered areas. They should be carefully planned, cleared of vegetation, and in winter of snow, compacted and covered with a thin layer of quicklime. Leveling sites with sawdust, bark and other wood waste is not allowed.

In warehouses, it is necessary to install temporary roads with or without pavement, depending on the service life of the warehouse, with a gravel-sand or crushed stone base. If necessary, ditches should be installed to drain rain and flood waters. The width of access roads and their turning angles should be taken based on technical characteristics used transport and loading and unloading equipment, but not less than 3 m, the width of passages between stacks is not less than 1 m. The site must be illuminated, fenced, have guards, and equipped with fire extinguishing equipment.

Timber must be stored in stacks and sorted. The stack of timber must have a sign indicating the number, species assortment, size, grade, quantity of timber, start and end time of stacking, mode and expected storage time.

Delivery and acceptance of wood infected with fungi to warehouses and construction sites prohibited. Vehicles that previously transported wood infected with fungi must be thoroughly cleaned of wood chips and debris before loading healthy wood; they must be disinfected with a 3% antiseptic solution.

Timber stored in a warehouse must be systematically inspected, at least once a month. If fungi or mold deposits are found on wood, the stacks should be sorted out, the affected timber should be removed, and the area where the materials were stored should be disinfected in accordance with GOST requirements.

When transporting and storing timber, wooden products and structures, it is necessary to take measures against their moisture, warping, mechanical damage, cracking and contamination.

Wood products should be stored in dry, ventilated areas with a relative humidity of no more than 60%.

Timber storage

Round forest

Fig. 12. Round timber storage

The storage area is cleared of dry grass, bark, and wood chips.

The spacers are installed symmetrically to the longitudinal axis of the stack at a distance from the ends of the logs no more than 1 m on each side.

Timber is laid with butts and tops in opposite directions and aligned with one side of the stack.

Lumber storage

TIMBER

Fig. 13. Row stacking and cage stacking of lumber

TIMBER

Fig. 14. Storage of dry timber, sleepers during manual laying

Safety requirements for laying lumber, building materials, structures and products

5. NEED FOR MATERIAL AND TECHNICAL RESOURCES

Lumber

Wood of different species has various properties and is used for various purposes.

The most commonly used wood in construction is coniferous wood (pine, spruce, larch, cedar, fir), which are characterized by good external and mechanical properties: shine, beautiful texture, turpentine smell, microstructure from 3 to 25 annual layers per 1 cm of cut, quite high strength, low hardness, holds metal fasteners well. Coniferous species are not subject to bending, since they have a low ability to do so.

Deciduous trees (oak, ash, birch, linden, beech, etc.) have different properties. For example, oak wood is characterized by high strength and hardness, resistance to decay, and has a beautiful texture and color. Ash wood has similar properties. Ash is often used to make tool handles and stair railings.

Birch wood resists impact very well, is uniform in structure and color, but is susceptible to rotting. Peeled veneer, plywood, particle boards, furniture, and packaging are made from it. Birch wood is also used in construction.

Linden has low mechanical properties; its soft and light wood cuts well, cracks little and warps slightly. It is often used for wood carving, drawing boards, wooden utensils, pencils, etc.

Lumber that is used in construction has its own specific names. They differ depending on the thickness and the ratio of width to thickness.

For boards, this ratio should be no more than 2. The maximum thickness of boards is 100 mm.

If the thickness of the lumber does not exceed 100 mm, but the ratio of width to thickness is less than 2, the lumber is called timber.

Lumber with a thickness of more than 100 mm is called timber.

The maximum length of lumber made from deciduous trees is 5 m. Coniferous lumber can be longer - up to 6.5 m.

An external examination is enough to identify wood defects: knots, cross-layers, rot, wormholes.

A knot is the part of a branch enclosed in the wood of the trunk. When sawing wood, knots often end up on the surface. According to their shape and location relative to the edges of the board or beam, knots are divided into round, oval, oblong, face, edge, edge, stitched, end, scattered, group, branched (Fig. 15).

Fig. 15. Types of knots:

A- round; b- oval; V- oblong; G- plastic; d- edge; e- rib; and- stitched; h- group; And- branched

The presence of knots significantly reduces the strength of the wood, since it disrupts its uniformity, and if the knot is located perpendicular to the longitudinal axis (it is called a stepson), the board or beam is considered unsuitable for finishing work and critical sections of the structure. This wood belongs to the third grade.

Lumber with tobacco knots of light or dark brown color is also of low quality - they are easy to distinguish from others, since the wood in the knots easily breaks and grinds into powder. The presence of such knots is allowed only in third grade wood, and only if the size of the knot does not exceed V5 of the diameter* of the log.

________________

* The text corresponds to the original. - Database manufacturer's note.

Wood that is too knotty is not suitable for use. Depending on the density of knots, wood is divided into grades. In wood of the first grade, the diameter of the knot should not exceed part of the diameter of the log, in wood of the second grade - 1/3. If the wood has a knot density greater than one knot per 2 linear meters, it belongs to the third grade.

A sign of cross-layering is the spiral direction of external fibers and cracks. The presence of cross-layers sharply reduces (up to 90%) the strength of wood. For 1 m of length, the displacement should not exceed 1/3 of the diameter of the log, depending on the type of wood.

Sawn timber with cross-layers is therefore not used in floors and in general where even minor loads are possible.

A break in wood along the grain is called a crack. According to their location, cracks can be plate, edge and end, and by type - metic, frost, shrinkage and peeling. Types of cracks are shown in Fig. 16.

Fig. 16. Types of cracks in wood:

I - plastic; II - edge; III - end; A- methic; b- frosty; V- shrinkage cracks; G- thrashing

Cracks also greatly reduce the strength of lumber, so they are allowed only if the total depth of the cracks does not exceed -1/3 of the log diameter, depending on the type of wood. In this case, the length of each crack should not exceed 1/3-1/2 of the log diameter for the first and second grades, respectively.

Wood defects also include wormholes, that is, passages and holes made in the wood by insects. The degree of damage by a wormhole is determined by the depth of penetration into the wood mass and the diameter of the hole made.

If only the top layer of wood is affected by a wormhole and it has not yet penetrated deeply, the lumber can be used in construction, although with restrictions, since the wormhole also reduces the strength of the wood. When the wormhole penetrates deeply, the wood becomes loose and rotten.

Wood rot can be of several types, and not all of them completely destroy the wood. Rot is a consequence of a fungal disease of wood, and many wood fungi make wood completely unusable. But there are also those who correct processing and storage of wood cease to be effective. Rot can appear in wood even while the tree is not cut down, while still standing (for example, white, sieve, rotten rot), or already during storage in a warehouse (sapwood rot). You can get rid of rot by drying the wood well; its effect will not resume if the wood is stored correctly.

Lumber should be stored in stacks, and even before stacking, they need to be sorted by size. The stack must be constructed in such a way that air can freely pass through it. This is necessary for air drying the wood.

Depending on the thickness of the board, every 0.5-0.7 m between the boards stacked in a stack, it is necessary to lay spacers of such a size that a gap of 10 cm remains. The stack must be positioned in such a way that the long side of the boards is perpendicular to the direction of the prevailing wind. To prevent the ends of thick boards and beams from cracking, they must be coated with lime.

Do not build a stack higher than 3 meters. Stacked wood should be protected from rain and other precipitation using pitched roof from roofing felt or roofing felt. It must overlap the stack by at least 0.5 m.

Based on resistance to damage and cracking, wood of different species is divided into two classes.

The wood of fir, birch, beech, hornbeam, maple, alder, poplar, and sycamore resists insect damage better than others. These tree species produce wood of the first class of resistance. Most conifers, as well as oak and ash, belong to the second class.

The following species resist fungal infection well: fir, oak, maple, elm species, sycamore, ash, which make up the first class of resistance. The second class includes: spruce, pine, larch, cedar, alder, aspen, poplar, birch, beech, hornbeam, linden.

The wood of spruce, pine, fir, alder, aspen, linden, poplar and birch resists cracking well - these are species belonging to the first class of resistance. The second includes larch, beech, hornbeam, elm, sycamore, maple, oak and ash wood.

The humidity of freshly cut pine and spruce wood is 50-60%. After 1.5-2 years of drying, its humidity decreases to 15-18%. The wood in this case is called semi-dry. Wood with less moisture is called dry. For work, you need to use wood with a moisture content of no more than 20%, otherwise it will be susceptible to rotting. It should be taken into account that under conditions of constant positive temperature, the moisture content of the wood decreases even more. Therefore, for internal doors, for example, dry wood should be used so that when drying, cracks and distortions do not appear in the door leaf.

Depending on the purpose of the structural element for which this or that lumber is used, it is necessary to determine its dimensions:

For rafters, beams of basement and interfloor floors, as well as treads of stairs and external platbands, second and third grade lumber with a thickness of 50 mm, a width of 150-180 mm and a length of 4.0-6.5 m is used;

For racks frame walls, partitions, strapping, crossbars, handrails, stair railings and window sill boards - second and third grade, 50 mm thick, 100 mm wide and 2.7-6.5 m long;

For balusters of staircase railings and roof sheathing - second and third grade, 50 mm thick, 50 mm wide and 3.5-6.5 m long;

For frame wall posts, lower trim, rafter elements and finished flooring - second and third grade, 40 mm thick, 100-150 mm wide and 2.7-6.5 m long;

For cranial bars, roof sheathing and gable frames - third grade 40 mm thick, 50 mm wide and 1.5-6.5 m long;

For platbands for interior decoration of windows and doors - second grade, 25 mm thick, 80-150 mm wide and 2.4-6.5 m long;

For architectural elements of the facade, platbands and wall cladding - second grade with a thickness of 19 mm, a width of 50-150 mm and a length of 2.4-6.5 m;

For covering partitions and strips - third grade, 16 mm thick, 80-150 mm wide and 3.5-6.5 m long;

As tongue and groove boards for lining the ceiling, for cladding walls and gables - second grade, 16 mm thick, 80-150 mm wide and 3.5-6.5 m long.

To finish wooden elements, you can purchase shalevka 7-19 mm thick, 22-35 mm thick, thin and thick boards. Boards can be taken either clean-edged, having a rectangular cross-section along the entire length, or with a blunt or sharp wane, as well as unedged (Fig. 17).

Fig. 17. Types of lumber:

A- double-edged timber; b- three-edged beam; V- four-edged beam; G- unedged board; d- clean-edged board: 1 - plastic; 2 - edge; 3 - rib; 4 - end; e - edged board with blunt wane; and- edged board with sharp wane; h- block; And- both sexes croaker; To- both floors are planked; l- unedged sleeper; m- edged sleeper

To protect wood from rotting, antiseptics are used: aqueous solution- oil, in organic solution - in the form of a paste. Antiseptics must be safe, easily penetrate the wood to the required depth, not wash out and not reduce the strength of the wood during impregnation. In addition, they are subject to the following requirements: antiseptics must be poisonous to fungi, be low-volatile, not cause metal corrosion, and have a low cost.

Oil antiseptics are highly toxic and completely destroy wood-destroying fungi, insects and marine woodworms. They are non-volatile and do not wash out of the wood. Oil antiseptics are used on a limited scale because they have a strong, unpleasant odor and stain the wood. dark color and increase its flammability.

Antiseptics dissolved in pentachlorophenol are used in carpentry. They are non-volatile and resistant to washing out; wood treated with them is well glued, polished and painted.

Table 5.1

Density of wood of various species, kg/m