State fragmentation of Ancient Rus' in the XII-XIII centuries. Socio-economic development

Fragmentation was the result of the interaction of a whole complex of factors.

In Russian historiography, the division regarding a single Ancient Rus' a number of independent states for a long time were explained by the development of feudal relations, the strengthening of feudal estates and the establishment of a subsistence economy, which, preventing the establishment of economic ties, led to political isolation. The influence of the class struggle, which required the improvement and strengthening of the apparatus of power in the localities, was also noted. This allegedly also pushed for "boyar separatism" and the separation of lands, since the local boyars, having grown stronger, no longer needed the power and support of the Kyiv prince. However, such an interpretation of the causes of fragmentation, based on the formational approach, seems to be one-sided and, most importantly, does not find its confirmation in sources indicating the weak development of feudal property in the 12th century.

1.1. Formation of local princely dynasties. The development of the family possession of the Rurikoviches into the family possessions of individual branches of the clan led to the settling of princes in certain territories (future destinies). The prince was now thinking not about getting a more prestigious and profitable table, but about securing their own possession. (This trend was legally fixed by the decision of the Lyubech Congress of Princes) This was also facilitated by the growth of civil strife, the desire of the princes to strengthen and expand their possessions, sometimes at the expense of their neighbors.

1.2. Strengthening of the local boyars. There is a folding of the boyar regional groupings, caused, in turn, both by the success of agriculture (the spread of arable farming, the emergence of three-fields increased the production of surplus product, the boyar estates turned into an important source of income), and the growth in the number of squads and their passion for wealth. In the old days, the squad dreamed of campaigns and booty, now, together with the prince, she "settled" on the ground, becoming either his support, or, conversely, trying to subordinate him to her will. But in any case, the boyars and the local prince were united by a desire for independence, a desire to get out of the custody of the Kyiv prince, to stop paying tribute to him from their territories.

1.3. The development of crafts and trade led to the growth and strengthening of cities, which turned into centers of individual territories. In addition, they played the role of a kind of "collective castles" for the local boyars. They also concentrated the local princely administration. The urban population began to be burdened by the need to pay tribute and defend the interests of the Kyiv prince who was far away from him. Protection from the raids of nomads and neighbors was now provided by local princely squads.

1.4. The position and role of Kyiv itself has changed. With the loss of the value of the trade route "from the Varangians to the Greeks" in the XII century. the economic basis of unity weakened, the receipt of trade duties was reduced, which undermined the economic power of the Kyiv prince. The arable land became the main source of wealth, in search of it, the squads with their princes rushed to the outskirts. In addition, the Kyiv land left and working population, fleeing from the constant strife caused by the struggle for the Kiev "table", as well as the raids of the Polovtsians. Naturally, this “exodus” weakened the position of the Kyiv princes, who received less and less taxes, missing “wars”.

1.5. The Polovtsian raids stopped. Russian princes and Polovtsy entered into marriages. The Polovtsian danger practically disappeared, which weakened the desire of the Russians to unite their military forces.

1.6. The spiritual prerequisite for the separation was the formation of an idea of the divine origin of the princely power of the prince, which strengthened it. The population of certain lands wanted to find their own prince, to be "at hand", as they endowed him with supernatural powers, saw him as a guarantor of the security and prosperity of this territory.

2. The beginning of the period of fragmentation and its general characteristics

2.1. The beginning of the division. Centrifugal tendencies in Ancient Rus' began to manifest themselves in the era of the Yaroslavichs and, gradually increasing, resulted in the end of the 11th century. in princely strife. The desire of the princes, on the one hand, to overcome them, and on the other hand, to gain a foothold in their lands, after the Lyubech Congress, led to the establishment of a new principle of organizing power and the transformation of the Russian land from the possession of the Rurik family into a set of independent "fatherlands", hereditary possessions of individual branches of the princely house.

2.2. However, at the beginning of the XII century. the division of the country was suspended under the influence of a number of reasons, primarily -

. Personal qualities of Vladimir Monomakh (1113-1125) and his active work on the Kievan throne. He enjoyed great prestige both due to his kinship with the Byzantine emperor Constantine Monomakh, whose maternal grandson he was, and the organization of successful campaigns against the Polovtsians. Having become the Grand Duke at the age of 60, Vladimir amazed his contemporaries with his broad education, literary talents, and especially with his “death love”. The flexible, strong-willed ruler, resorting either to force or to peaceful negotiations, managed to restore the unity of Ancient Rus'.

to his son Mstislav the Great (1125-1132) managed to continue the policy of his father and maintain what has been achieved. But immediately after the death of the Grand Duke of Kyiv, “the whole Russian land was inflamed,” a chain reaction of division began, which led to the emergence of a number of practically independent principalities in place of united Rus'.

2.3. The nature of the new state formations. In the second third of the XII century. about 15 independent states emerged (Kiev, Chernigov, Pereyaslav, Ryazan, Rostov-Suzdal, Smolensk, Galician, Vladimir-Volyn, Polotsk, Turov and other principalities, as well as Novgorod land) continued to fragment further, but the integrity of the Russian land was preserved to a certain extent. Relations between the Russian lands were maintained thanks to a common faith, language, the action of common laws, fixed by the Long Truth. The idea of unity did not disappear in the people's consciousness, which was especially pronounced in times of civil strife and other disasters that befell Rus'. A dual self-consciousness was formed, in which the Russian people considered their Fatherland both the Russian land, and at the same time the Ryazan, Polotsk or Rostov-Suzdal principality. True, the regional component in such self-consciousness gradually increased, which contributed to the deepening of fragmentation.

Some historians believe that there was not a complete collapse Old Russian state, and its transformation into a federation of principalities headed by the Grand Duke of Kyiv. But his power was nominal, and for the Kiev table itself, the struggle of the most powerful princes of individual lands began, which led to the devastation of the Kyiv land and the loss of its former significance. After some time, the table of the Grand Duke of Kyiv lost its appeal for local princes, who focused on expanding their own possessions.

3. Vladimir-Suzdal land

3.1. Natural conditions and colonization. The history of North-Eastern Rus', located in the Oka basin and the upper reaches of the Volga, is of particular interest because it was this land that later became the core of the new Russian state. A significant part of its territory was occupied by forests, the soils were podzolic, infertile, with the exception of the so-called opolies, huge glades on the outskirts of forests in the region of Rostov, Pereyaslavl-Zalessky and Suzdal, with a relatively thick black earth layer. Plowed agriculture developed here, monastic and boyar estates appeared.

In the northeast, which was comparatively late subjected to the Slavic colonization(since the 10th century), along with the old cities (Rostov, Suzdal), new ones appeared: Vladimir-on-Klyazma, Pereyaslavl-Zalessky, Galich. Under 1147 Moscow was first mentioned in the annals. Settlers from the south and northwest of Rus' - farmers and artisans - brought with them not only advanced methods of management, but also geographical names. Trade routes extended through the Novgorod lands to the west and through the Volga Bulgaria to the east and southeast.

3.2. Acquisition of independence. Rostov-Suzdal land came out of the power of Kyiv in the 30s. 12th century under the younger son of Vladimir Monomakh yuri, nicknamed Dolgoruky for the desire to rule in Kyiv and interfere in the affairs of neighboring principalities. He moved the center of his land from Rostov to Suzdal. Yuri still sought to take the Kiev table and, relying on the support of his boyars and an alliance with the Galician principality, after several attempts, he nevertheless "sat on the Kiev table" in 1155 g.

3.3. Political development. However, his reign was short-lived 1157 he died (according to one version, he was poisoned by the people of Kiev, dissatisfied with his rule), and the Suzdalians who came with him were killed.

. Transfer of the center to Vladimir. Power in the northeast passed to the son of Yuri Andrei Bogolyubsky (1157-1174), who, even during the life of his father, without his knowledge, left the Vyshgorod intended for him in the south of Rus' and returned to the Suzdal land. (At the same time, the prince took with him the icon of the Mother of God, which was considered miraculous, ordering it to be placed in Vladimir-on-Klyazma. Over time, this icon of the Vladimir Mother of God became one of the main shrines of the Russian land). He moved the capital to Vladimir, previously considered a "suburb" of the old cities.

. Strengthening of the princely power. The transfer of the capital was caused by Andrei's desire for autocracy and the desire to avoid the influence of the old Rostov-Suzdal boyars. Vladimir, on the other hand, did not have an established boyar group and his own council, which limited the power of the prince.

A manifestation of new trends was the transformation of combatants from advisers and associates of the prince into his subjects, who received land for their service. However, the supreme ownership of the land was retained by the prince, who completely disposed of it. This is how the connection between power and property, inherent in Eastern civilization, developed. At the same time, the real power-property of the prince was combined with traditional representations farmers that "the land of God" actually belongs to the one who cultivates it. These ideas only strengthened the power of the prince - God's viceroy on earth, and, consequently, justified his rights to the land. In addition, the prince in Rus' was perceived as a defender of the earth from social and natural disasters, foreigners, an intercessor before the Lord.

. The main goal of the reign of Andrei Bogolyubsky is the development of his own principality. After the capture and destruction of Kyiv in 1169 Vladimir-Suzdal army and allied Polovtsy Andrey remained in Vladimir, continuing the policy of strengthening his own principality. In order to elevate Vladimir and create from it not only a political, but also a religious center, the prince tried, unsuccessfully, to establish his own metropolitan see, equal to that of Kyiv. The prince's desire to turn Vladimir into a new center of all Russian lands is also evidenced by the construction of the Assumption Cathedral, the "Golden Gate" - majestic structures of the "capital" level. Andrew managed to somewhat expand the territory of the principality, to which even the Volga Bulgars paid tribute.

. The coup of 1174 and new strife. The desire for autocracy, repressions against some boyars and a number of military failures led to the fact that Andrei's close associates in 1174 organized a conspiracy and killed the prince in his castle Bogolyubovo. This was followed by unrest throughout the principality.

After the death of Andrei, the senior combatants of Yuri Dolgoruky - the boyars of the old cities - offered the throne to the Rostislavichs, the nephews of the murdered prince, but the Vladimirites nominated his half-brothers, Mikhalko and Vsevolod. After a bloody strife, the brothers won.

. Vsevolod the Big Nest (1176-1212), who replaced his brother Mikhalko, who died early, pursued a more balanced policy than Andrei, which made it possible to significantly strengthen the Vladimir principality and the power of the prince himself. He expanded his possessions, strengthened the squad, subordinated Novgorod and Ryazan to his influence, undertook a new campaign against the Volga Bulgaria. As a result, the power of the Grand Duke was strengthened in North-Eastern Rus'. The Vladimir-Suzdal principality became one of the most powerful among other Russian lands.

But centrifugal processes developed. After the death of Vsevolod, civil strife began again, weakening the principality. As a result of the struggle of the Vsevolodovichs, his son came to power Yuri (1218-1238), who became the last ruler of the independent Vladimir-Suzdal principality and died in the tragic year of the Mongol invasion.

4. Novgorod land

4.1. natural conditions. The possessions of Novgorod stretched from the Gulf of Finland to the Urals and from the Arctic Ocean to the upper reaches of the Volga. Geographical location, harsh natural conditions, mixed ethnic composition population along with a number of historical features determined the specifics of economic life, social structure and political organization Northwestern land. So, poor soils and a cold climate were the reason that Novgorodians periodically experienced a lack of bread. This economically and politically tied Novgorod to the Vladimir land, from where, basically, grain was supplied.

4.2. Socio-economic features.

Convenient geographical position turned Novgorod into the largest shopping mall, supplying European countries with furs, honey, leather, marine products. Trade was organized by the merchants, but they received the products themselves from the boyar fishing villages.

The boyars also controlled a highly developed handicraft industry. Novgorod boyars came not from the top of the princely squad, as in other Russian lands, but from the local tribal nobility and was formed as a hereditary aristocracy in the pre-princely period. Having assisted Yaroslav the Wise in his struggle for the throne of Kiev, the Novgorod boyars received a number of privileges, which further strengthened his position and allowed him to gradually seize and where to buy communal lands.

4.3. Politic system.

Novgorod never had its own princely dynasty. Novgorod, whose princes in the IX century. subjugated Kyiv, remained domain - the hereditary possession of the Kyiv princes, who sent their governors there, most often their eldest sons, who later joined the struggle for the Kiev table.

. The supreme body of power and the nature of the political system. In the city, even in the era of domination of Kyiv, the activity of the people's assembly did not fade - vecha. After exile in 1136 Prince Vsevolod Mstislavich, the Novgorodians achieved complete independence, and the veche actually turned into supreme body authorities.

Historians do not have a unanimous opinion both about the essence of the political system of Novgorod, and about the composition of the vech.

For a long time it was believed that all free men were represented at the veche, which gave grounds to characterize the political system of Novgorod as a democratic republic. At one time, the point of view prevailed that the veche was a meeting of 300 representatives of the boyar families, elected by local assemblies (at the “Ulichansky” and “Konchaisky” veche), which made it possible to draw a conclusion about the “aristocratic nature of this republic”. In the Soviet historical science the point of view, adopted by historians of the 19th century, about the “Novgorod Boyar Republic”, controlled by the aristocracy through an “irresponsible” democratic veche, became widespread.

Really, council of gentlemen consisting of the top of the boyars, carefully prepared veche meetings and, bribing the votes of "young people", predetermined the results of the elections and the outcome of voting on the most important issues. That is why the highest officials of Novgorod were elected from this narrow circle " the best people". Thus, the Novgorod veche, while formally remaining a democratic body, in its essence expressed the interests of the city's leaders and was the basis of the aristocratic system of government.

Despite the established combination of veche and oligarchic institutions of power, Novgorodians, even after the expulsion of Vsevolod, continued to invite princes(most often from the Suzdal land). The prince was not only supreme commander And the highest court. It is also important that the addressee (albeit formal) of the tributes received by the “Lord Veliky Novgorod” from the subject peoples was not a veche, but a prince, who was considered a symbol of the unity of the Novgorod land and a link with Russia.

An agreement was concluded with the prince - a “row”, limiting the range of his powers to official functions: military, police, judicial. He did not have the right to interfere in the internal affairs of the city government, to acquire land property in Novgorod volosts, to change officials, to carry out reprisals without trial. In case of violation of the agreement by the prince, he was expelled from Novgorod.

The preservation of elements of princely power was determined by the fact that in the Middle Ages it was impossible to "pure" republican state structure, because people were convinced of the divine origin of the highest power emanating from the monarch. In Rus', including in Novgorod (albeit with its own peculiarities), ideas about the supernatural nature of princely power and the personality of a prince, able to protect his land from various kinds of disasters, were established. In addition, the desire of the Novgorodians to maintain economic and political ties with the "grassroots" lands, to use their military potential in the fight against external enemies, was important. It was important to have a common spiritual foundation - Orthodoxy and a church organization that preserved all-Russian unity.

Thus, if we take into account that in Novgorod a significant role belonged to the princely power, then we can conclude that mixed character his political system, consisting of democratic, oligarchic And monarchical elements.

. Managment structure. Veche elected posadnik, who came from the most noble boyars, served as the head of the executive branch and headed the Novgorod army together with the prince.

The position was elected thousand. He was in charge of tax collection, led the Novgorod city militia, and also controlled trade.

Also elected at the meeting lord- the head of the Novgorod church. He was a bishop (later an archbishop), who had some secular powers: judicial, financial, foreign policy. Presiding over the meetings of the Council of Gentlemen and blessing the opening of veche meetings, he thus, as it were, performed some functions of the head of state.

. Results of development. The history of the Novgorod land is characterized by acute social and political struggle, complicated by the intervention of external forces. The military force of Novgorod was the militia, which consisted of local residents and was not able to further resist the powerful external enemies. In 1478, Novgorod land was finally annexed to the Muscovite state.

5. Galicia-Volyn land

5.1. natural conditions. The Galicia-Volyn principality, located on the western and southwestern borders of Rus', in the interfluve of the Southern Bug and the Dniester, had exceptionally favorable conditions for the development of agriculture, crafts and trade. Its borders approached the foothills of the Carpathians and the Danube, which opened up wide opportunities for establishing trade relations with Poland, Hungary, Bulgaria and Byzantium.

5.2. Socio-economic features. The fertile black soil of Volhynia has long attracted the agricultural population of Rus'. As a result, large private land ownership and a powerful boyar stratum formed here quite early, striving for independence both from Kyiv and from their own princes. The development of crafts and trade led to the growth of cities - Galich, Vladimir-Volynsky, Przemysl, Dorogobuzh, Terebovlya, Lutsk, Kholm, etc. The urban strata also took an active part in the political life of the land.

5.3. political development.

. Beginning of the period of independence. After the death of Yaroslav the Wise, the cities of Southwestern Rus' were usually given over to the control of younger sons and outcast princes. For example, the fifth son of Yaroslav - Igor - went to reign Vladimir-Volynsky, later his great-grandchildren Vasilko and Volodar were allocated Terebovl and Przemysl. Igor's son David began to lay claim to these cities. And even the decisions of the Lyubech Congress did not stop him. With the covert support of Svyatopolk of Kyiv, he captured almost all the southwestern lands. However, after the Vitichevsky congress of princes (1100), the Volyn principality was taken from David Igorevich and handed over to the Monomashichs, while Galicia remained with Vasilko and Volodar. Their descendants, having already become completely independent rulers, tried to unite the southwestern lands into a single principality, relying on the support of Yuri Dolgoruky, while the Volyn princes focused on an alliance with Kiev.

. Yaroslav Vladimirovich (1153-1187). The Galician principality reached its highest power under the son of Vladimir Volodarevich - Yaroslav Osmomysl("eight-thought"), which received this nickname for wisdom, education and, first of all, for knowledge of eight languages. In 1159 he succeeded in capturing Kiev. But even he, in a collision with the Galician almighty boyars, was forced to make a number of concessions. After his death, a long turmoil began in Galicia, complicated by the intervention of Hungary and Poland.

. Unification of principalities. In 1199 Volyn prince, great-grandson of Mstislav the Great Roman Mstislavich, captured Galich, united Vladimir-Volynsky and Galich into a powerful Galician-Volyn principality. Relying on the townspeople and small landowners, he dealt with the boyars dissatisfied with his policy, carried out campaigns against Lithuania, Poles and Polovtsy, briefly subjugated Kyiv. The Byzantine emperor Alexei III Angel, expelled from Constantinople by Western European crusaders, found refuge in his possessions.

The policy of Mstislav the Great after his death in 1205 and the new boyar turmoil was continued by his son Daniel Romanovich. The principality was divided into destinies. Only in 1221 married to daughter Prince of Novgorod Mstislav the Udaly, Daniel was able to return his fatherland - the Volyn principality, and in 1234 to seize the Galician throne. The prince, at the head of his squad, took part in the tragic battle for the Russian army with the Mongols on the river. Kalke (1223). IN 1239 having taken Kyiv, he united Southern and Southwestern Rus', but their further development was interrupted by the Mongol invasion. After the death of Daniel Romanovich in 1264 the principality was divided between his sons, and in the XIV century. his lands became part of Poland, Lithuania and Hungary.

It breaks up into separate principalities ("lands"). For Kyiv began the struggle of different princely branches. The strongest lands were Chernihiv, Vladimir-Suzdal, Galicia-Volyn. Their princes were subject to princes whose possessions (destinies) were part of large lands. The prerequisites for fragmentation are the growth of local centers, already burdened by the guardianship of Kyiv, the development of princely and boyar land ownership.

The principality of Vladimir rose under Yuri Dolgoruky and his sons Andrei Bogolyubsky (d. 1174) and Vsevolod the Big Nest (d. 1212). Yuri and Andrei captured Kyiv more than once, but Andrei, unlike his father, planted his brother there, and did not reign himself. Andrew tried to rule by despotic methods and was killed by conspirators.

In the 1170s. the Polovtsian danger intensifies. The southern princes, led by Svyatoslav of Kyiv, inflicted several defeats on them, but in 1185 Igor Novgorod-Seversky was defeated and captured by the Polovtsy, the nomads ravaged part of southern Rus'. But by the end of the century, the Polovtsy, having broken up into many separate hordes, stopped the raids.

Prerequisites political fragmentation in Rus':

1. Social:

a) made it harder social structure Russian society, its layers in individual lands and cities became more defined: large boyars, clergy, merchants, artisans, the lower classes of the city, including serfs. Developed dependence on the landowners of rural residents. For the new structure of the economy, other than before, the scale of the state was needed.

b) The transition to arable farming contributed to the settled way of life of the rural population and increased the desire of the combatants to own land. Therefore, the transformation of combatants into landowners began (on the basis of a princely award). The squad became less mobile. The warriors were now interested in a permanent stay near their estates and strove for political independence.

In this regard, in the 12-13 centuries. the system of immunities became widespread - a system that freed the boyars-landowners from princely administration and court, giving them the right to independent actions in their possessions.

That is, the main reason for fragmentation was the natural process of the emergence of private land ownership and the settling of the squad on the ground.

2. Economic:

Gradually, individual estates become stronger and begin to produce all products only for their own consumption, and not for the market. Commodity exchange between individual economic units practically ceases.

3. Political:

The main role in the collapse of the state was played by the local boyars; local princes did not want to share their income with the Grand Prince of Kyiv, and in this they were actively supported by the local boyars.

4. foreign policy:

Crusader campaigns opened a more direct route of communication between Asia and Europe through the eastern coast of the Mediterranean. Trade routes moved to central Europe. Rus' lost the status of a world trade intermediary and a factor that united the Slavic tribes.

Consequences of political fragmentation.

1. In the conditions of the formation of new economic regions and the formation of new political formations, the steady development of the peasant economy took place, new arable lands were developed, there was an expansion and quantitative multiplication of estates, which for their time became the most progressive form of farming.

2. Within the framework of the principalities-states, the Russian church was gaining strength, which had a strong influence on culture.

3. A counterbalance to the final disintegration of Rus' was the constantly existing external danger to the Russian lands from the side of the Polovtsians, respectively, the Kiev prince acted as the defender of Rus'.

Feudal fragmentation in Rus' in the XII-XIII centuries: causes, main principalities and lands, differences in the state system.

The basis for the beginning of political fragmentation was the formation of large land holdings, received on the basis of freehold.

Feudal fragmentation- a historical period in the history of Rus', which is characterized by the fact that formally being part of Kievan Rus, the specific principalities are constantly separated from Kyiv

Start - 1132 (death of the Kyiv prince Mstislav the Great)

Ending - the formation of a single Russian state at the end of the 15th century

Causes of feudal fragmentation:

Preservation of significant tribal fragmentation under the dominance of subsistence farming (social)

The development of feudal ownership of land and the growth of specific, princely-boyar land ownership - estates (economic)

Struggle for power between princes, feudal civil strife (internal political)

Constant raids of nomads and the outflow of the population to the north-east of Rus' (foreign policy)

The decline of trade along the Dnieper due to the Polovtsian danger and the loss of Byzantium's leading role in international trade(economic)

The growth of cities as centers of specific land, the development of productive forces (economic)

The absence in the middle of the 12th century of a serious external threat (Poland, Hungary), which rallied the princes to fight

Emergence of principalities:

Novgorod boyar republic:

Novgorod land (north-western Rus') occupied a vast territory from the Arctic Ocean to the upper reaches of the Volga, from the Baltic to the Urals.

Novgorod land was far from the nomads and did not experience the horror of their raids. The wealth of the Novgorod land consisted in the presence of a huge land fund, which fell into the hands of the local boyars, who grew out of the local tribal nobility. Novgorod did not have enough of its own bread, but fishing activities - hunting, fishing, salt making, iron production, beekeeping - received significant development and gave considerable income to the boyars. The rise of Novgorod was facilitated by an exceptionally favorable geographical position: the city was at the crossroads of trade routes that connected Western Europe with Russia, and through it - with the East and Byzantium. Dozens of ships were moored at the berths of the Volkhov River in Novgorod.

The Novgorod boyar republic is characterized by some features of the social system and feudal relations: the significant social and feudal weight of the Novgorod boyars, which has long traditions, and its active participation in trade and fishing activities. The main economic factor was not land, but capital. This led to a special social structure of society and an unusual form of state government for medieval Rus'. The Novgorod boyars organized commercial and industrial enterprises, trade with their western neighbors (the Hanseatic Trade Union) and with the Russian principalities.

By analogy with some regions of the medieval Western Europe(Genoa, Venice) in Novgorod there was a peculiar republican (feudal) system. The development of crafts and trade, more intensive than in the ancient Russian lands, which was explained by access to the seas, required the creation of more democratic state system, the basis of which was a rather broad middle class Novgorod society: live People engaged in trade and usury, natives (a kind of farmers or farmers) leased or cultivated the land. Merchants united in several hundred (communities) and traded with the Russian principalities and with "abroad" ("guests").

The urban population was divided into patricians (“oldest”) and “black people”. The Novgorod (Pskov) peasantry consisted, as in other Russian lands, of smerds - community members, ladles - dependent peasants working "from the floor" for part of the product on the master's land, pawns ("mortgaged") who entered bondage and serfs.

State administration of Novgorod was carried out through a system of veche bodies: in the capital there was city council , separate parts of the city (sides, ends, streets) convened their veche meetings. Formally, the veche was the highest authority (each at its own level).

Veche - part assembly male the population of the city, had broad powers (the "city-wide" veche): there were cases that it called the prince, judged his "guilts", "showed him the way" from Novgorod; elected the posadnik, the thousandth and the lord; resolved issues of war and peace; made and repealed laws; established the amount of taxes and duties; elected representatives of power in the Novgorod possessions and judged them.

Prince - was invited by citizens to reign, served as commander in chief and organizer of the defense of the city. He shared military and judicial activities with the posadnik. According to agreements with the city (about eighty agreements of the 13th-15th centuries are known), the prince was forbidden to acquire land in Novgorod, to distribute the land of Novgorod volosts to his entourage. Also, under the agreement, he was forbidden to manage the Novgorod volosts, administer justice outside the city, legislate, declare war and make peace. It was also forbidden to conclude agreements with foreigners without the mediation of Novgorodians, judge serfs, accept pawns from merchants and smerds, hunt and fish outside the allotted please him. In case of violation of the treaties, the prince could be expelled.

Posadnik - The executive power was in the hands of the posadnik, the first civil dignitary, chairman of the people's council. Their functions included: relations with foreign states, courts and internal administration. During the performance of their duties, they were called sedate (from the word "degree" - the platform from which they addressed the veche). Upon retirement, they received the title of the old posadnik and the old thousand.

Tysyatsky - the leader of the Novgorod militia, and also his duties included: tax collection, commercial court.

The Council of Masters is a kind of Novgorodian supreme chamber. The council included: the archbishop, the posadnik, the thousand, the Konchansky elders, the sotsk elders, the old posadniks and the thousand.

The regulation of relations between the Council of Lords, the posadnik and the veche with the prince were established by special rules. contract letters.

The sources of law in this region were Russkaya Pravda, veche legislation, city treaties with princes, judicial practice, and foreign legislation. As a result of codification in the 15th century, Novgorod judicial charters appeared in Novgorod.

As a result of the war of 1471 and the campaign of Moscow troops against Veliky Novgorod in 1477-1478. many institutions of republican power were abolished. The Novgorod Republic became an integral part of the Russian state, while retaining some autonomy. Vladimiro - Suzdal Principality

The Vladimir-Suzdal principality is a typical example of the Russian principality of the period of feudal fragmentation. Occupying a large territory - from the Northern Dvina to the Oka and from the sources of the Volga to its confluence with the Oka, Vladimir-Suzdal Rus eventually became the center around which the Russian lands united, it developed Russian centralized state. Moscow was founded on its territory. The growth of the influence of this large principality was largely facilitated by the fact that it was there passed from Kyiv the grand ducal title. All Vladimir-Suzdal princes, descendants of Vladimir Monomakh, from Yuri Dolgoruky (1125-1157) to Daniil of Moscow (1276-1303) bore this title.

The metropolitan see was also moved there. The Vladimir-Suzdal principality did not retain its unity and integrity for long. Shortly after its rise under Grand Duke Vsevolod the Big Nest (1176-1212), it broke up into small principalities. In the 70s. 13th century became independent and Moscow principality.

Social system. The structure of the class of feudal lords in the Vladimir-Suzdal principality differed little from that in Kyiv. However, here a new category of petty feudal lords arises - the so-called boyar children. In the XII century. there is also a new term - " nobles". The ruling class also included clergy, which in all Russian lands of the period of feudal fragmentation, including the Vladimir-Suzdal principality, retained its organization, which was built according to the church charters of the first Russian Christian princes - St. Vladimir and Yaroslav the Wise. Having conquered Rus', the Tatar-Mongols left the organization of the Orthodox Church unchanged. They confirmed the privileges of the church with khan's labels. The oldest of them, issued by Khan Mengu-Temir (1266-1267), guaranteed the inviolability of faith, worship and church canons, retained the jurisdiction of the clergy and other church persons to church courts (with the exception of cases of robbery, murder, exemption from taxes, duties and duties). The metropolitan and bishops of the Vladimir land had their own vassals - the boyars, the children of the boyars and the nobles, who carried out their military service.

The bulk of the population of the Vladimir-Suzdal principality were villagers, who were called here orphans, Christians, and later - peasants. They paid dues to the feudal lords and were gradually deprived of the right to freely move from one owner to another.

Politic system. The Vladimir-Suzdal principality was early feudal monarchy with strong grand ducal power. Already the first Rostov-Suzdal prince - Yuri Dolgoruky - was a strong ruler who managed to conquer Kiev in 1154. In 1169, Andrei Bogolyubsky again conquered the "mother of Russian cities", but did not transfer his capital there - he returned to Vladimir, thereby reaffirming its metropolitan status. He also managed to subjugate the Rostov boyars to his power, for which he was nicknamed the "autocracy" of the Vladimir-Suzdal land. Even at the time of the Tatar-Mongol yoke, the Vladimir table continued to be considered the first grand princely throne in Rus'. The Tatar-Mongols preferred to leave intact the internal state structure of the Vladimir-Suzdal principality and the tribal order of succession of the grand duke's power.

The Grand Duke of Vladimir relied on the retinue, from which, as in the times of Kievan Rus, the Council under the prince was formed. In addition to the warriors, the council included representatives of the higher clergy, and after the transfer of the metropolitan see to Vladimir, the metropolitan himself.

The Grand Duke's court was ruled by a courtier (butler) - the second most important person in the state apparatus. The Ipatiev Chronicle (1175) among the princely assistants also mentions tiuns, swordsmen, children, which indicates that the Vladimir-Suzdal principality inherited from Kievan Rus palace and patrimonial system of government.

Local power belonged to governors (in cities) and volostels (in rural areas). They ruled the court in the lands under their jurisdiction, showing not so much concern for the administration of justice, but the desire for personal enrichment at the expense of the local population and replenishment of the grand ducal treasury, because, as the same Ipatiev Chronicle says, virami".

Right. The sources of law of the Vladimir-Suzdal Principality have not reached us, but there is no doubt that there were national legislative codes of Kievan Rus. The legal system of the principality included sources of secular and ecclesiastical law. Secular law was introduced Russian Truth. Church law proceeded from the norms of the all-Russian charters of the Kiev princes of an earlier time - the Charter of Prince Vladimir on tithes, church courts and church people, the Charter of Prince Yaroslav on church courts.

Galicia-Volyn principality

Social system. A feature of the social structure of the Galicia-Volyn principality was that a large group of boyars was formed there, in whose hands almost all land holdings were concentrated. The most important role played Galician men"- large votchinniki, who already in the 12th century opposed any attempts to limit their rights in favor of princely power and growing cities.

The other group consisted service feudal lords. The sources of their land holdings were princely grants, boyar lands confiscated and redistributed by the princes, as well as seized communal lands. In the vast majority of cases, they held the land conditionally while they served. Serving feudal lords supplied the prince with an army consisting of peasants dependent on them. It was the support of the Galician princes in the fight against the boyars.

The large church nobility in the person of archbishops, bishops, abbots of monasteries who owned vast lands and peasants. The church and monasteries acquired land holdings at the expense of grants and donations from the princes. Often they, like princes and boyars, seized communal lands, turning the peasants into monastic and church feudal-dependent people.

The bulk of the rural population in the Galicia-Volyn principality were peasants (smerdy). The growth of large landownership and the formation of a class of feudal lords were accompanied by the establishment of feudal dependence and the appearance of feudal rent. Such a category as serfs has almost disappeared . Serfdom merged with the peasants who were sitting on the ground.

The largest group of the urban population were artisans. In the cities there were jewelry, pottery, blacksmith and other workshops, the products of which went not only to the domestic, but also to the foreign market. Bringing big income salt trade. Being the center of crafts and trade, Galich gained fame as a cultural center. The Galician-Volych chronicle was created here, as well as other written monuments of the 11th-111th centuries.

Political system. The Galicia-Volyn principality remained united longer than many other Russian lands, although power in him belonged big boyars . power princes was fragile. Suffice it to say that the Galician boyars disposed of even the princely table - they invited and removed the princes. The history of the Galicia-Volyn principality is full of examples when the princes, who lost the support of the top of the boyars, were forced to go into exile. To fight the princes, the boyars invited Poles and Hungarians. Several Galician-Volyn princes were hanged by the boyars. The boyars exercised their power with the help of a council, which included the largest landowners, bishops and persons holding the highest government positions. The prince did not have the right to convene a council at will, could not issue a single act without his consent. Since the council included boyars who occupied major administrative positions, the entire state administration apparatus was actually subordinate to it.

The Galician-Volyn princes from time to time, under emergency circumstances, convened a veche, but it did not have much influence. They took part in all-Russian feudal congresses. Occasionally, congresses of feudal lords and the Galicia-Volyn principality were convened. In this principality, there was a palace-patrimonial system of government.

The territory of the state was divided into thousands and hundreds. As the thousand and sotsky with their administrative apparatus gradually became part of the palace and patrimonial apparatus of the prince, the positions of voivodes and volostels arose instead of them. Accordingly, the territory was divided into voivodeships and volosts. Elders were elected in the communities, who were in charge of administrative and petty court cases. Posadniks were appointed to cities. They possessed not only administrative and military power, but also performed judicial functions, collected tributes and duties from the population.

Church of the Savior Nereditsa. Cross section.

99. "Ustyug Annunciation". Icon of the late 12th century. Moscow, Tretyakov Gallery.

95. Dormition of the Mother of God. Icon of the 13th century. Moscow, Tretyakov Gallery.

94. Savior Not Made by Hands. Icon of the late 12th century. Moscow, Tretyakov Gallery.

In the second half of the 12th c. the final disintegration of the Kievan state took place. A number of feudal principalities arose, challenging each other for primacy. The progressive significance of this period lies in the growth of a number of local centers of culture. At the same time, despite the princely strife and constant internecine wars, the people vividly felt their commonality.

Ancient Russian art in a number of political and cultural centers, where painting, architecture, and applied arts developed independently, had many common features. Moreover, the art of individual regions, sometimes much more clearly than it was in the 11th century, affirmed the unity of artistic culture. It is no coincidence that in the second half of the 12th century. the most remarkable literary work of Ancient Rus' arose - "The Tale of Igor's Campaign", in which all-Russian social, aesthetic and moral ideals are expressed in deeply poetic forms.

The art of Novgorod holds one of the places of honor in the culture of Rus' in the second half of the 12th - early 13th centuries. It underwent serious changes after the uprising of 1136, as a result of which Novgorod turned into a rich and strong republic headed by the Council of Lords, which consisted of the most eminent boyars and wealthy merchants. The power of the prince was limited: he did not have the right to own the Novgorod lands and was completely dependent on the vech. An important role was played in Novgorod by artisans who opposed the boyars; they significantly influenced the politics of Novgorod, its culture and art. Over time, the Novgorod church became independent. The archbishop was elected by Novgorodians from the local clergy, and only for ordination he went to the metropolitan in Kyiv. The peculiarity of the social life of Novgorod determined the democratic nature of its culture and art.

A magnificent example of a new type of urban and monastic church is the Church of the Savior Nereditsa, built by Prince Yaroslav Vsevolodovich (founded in 1198, destroyed by the Nazis during the Great Patriotic War, now fully restored). Its dimensions were very modest compared to the princely buildings of the 11th and early 12th centuries.

The external appearance of this four-pillared single-dome church was distinguished by its great simplicity and at the same time the special plasticity that so attracts in Novgorod and Pskov architecture, Smooth light walls were only slightly enlivened by a few windows and simple spatulas extending from the base of the zakomar. The asymmetrically arranged windows and the unequal height of the apse (the middle one is twice as high as the outer ones) made the church very picturesque. Compared to the temples of the beginning of the century, it seemed squat, heavy, but its image was distinguished by great poetry. The austere, simple and austere temple was perfectly combined with the stingy flat landscape. In the interior of the Church of the Savior of Nereditsa, the side aisles did not play a significant role, everything was concentrated in the center, in the dome, which was easily visible from all sides. The staircase to the choir stalls ran through the thickness of the wall: the wooden choir stalls became small and occupied the space only opposite the altar; isolated aisles were located in their southern and northern parts. Unlike the cathedrals of the past, a church similar to the Church of the Savior of Nereditsa was intended for a limited circle of people connected by family ties or a common profession.

In the Novgorod painting of that time, as well as in architecture, one can see a decisive rejection of the Byzantine canons. Among the three remarkable fresco ensembles of the second half of the 12th century. - the Church of the Annunciation in Arkazhy (1189), the Church of George in Staraya Ladoga (60-80s of the 12th century) and the Church of the Savior of Nereditsa (1199) - the frescoes of the latter stand out in particular. They were a unique monument not only of Russian, but also of world medieval painting in terms of their artistic merits and safety.

The temple was painted from top to bottom. All its walls, vaults, pillars, like a carpet, were covered with images. Iconographically, the painting system was somewhat different from earlier paintings. So in the dome, instead of Christ Pantocrator, the composition “Ascension of Christ” was placed; a procession of saints and holy women, led by Boris and Gleb, was moving towards the Mother of God-orante, depicted in the conch of the altar; in the altar there were scenes of the life of Joachim and Anna, and finally, the entire western wall was occupied by a huge composition “The Last Judgment”, which is absent in Kyiv Sofia.

The artists who decorated the Church of the Savior Nereditsa were not strict in subordinating painting to architecture (this decisively distinguishes them from the Kyiv masters of the 11th century). The compositions here move from one wall to another, depriving the walls and vaults of constructive certainty.

However, the unity of the painting was achieved by a certain system: despite some deviations, individual cycles are located in firmly established places. Even more important is the figurative structure of the painting, the unity of stylistic devices, and the overall color scheme. In compositions characterized by great plasticity and great spiritual tension, Novgorod artists interpreted Byzantine iconographic schemes in their own way. They not only introduced various everyday details into traditional plots, but also changed the very nature of the gospel and biblical scenes.

If an artist painted a saint, then, first of all, he sought to convey a spiritual power that knew no doubts, frantic and formidable. In The Baptism of Christ, he paid special attention to the characteristic details that gave the scene a great life authenticity and at the same time made it possible to focus all attention on the depiction of baptism. The depiction of the Last Judgment is also very indicative in this respect. Although the Novgorod master did not represent the Last Judgment as the final triumph of justice and goodness, as Andrei Rublev did later, he did not show such interest in the idea of retribution as the sculptors of the medieval West. The attention of the author of the Nereditsa painting was primarily attracted by the situation of the Last Judgment and its main participants.

Novgorod masters also achieved great spiritual strength in the traditional image of the saint, the “father of the church”, who, as it were, directly addresses the viewer. Compared to it, the images of the mosaics and frescoes of the Kyiv Sophia seem to be much more detached from the world, from the surrounding life.

The frescoes of Nereditsa indicate the existence of a fully formed school of painting in Novgorod. But within its framework, there were several directions, as evidenced by the murals of the Church of St. George in Staraya Ladoga and especially the Arkazhsky temple, many images and compositions of which are distinguished by sophistication and subtlety of execution, nobility and majesty. The masters who worked in these temples were, to a much greater extent than the authors of the Nereditsa frescoes, connected with the traditions of Byzantine painting of the 12th century.

The existence of two trends in Novgorod painting is also confirmed by the icons of the 12th-13th centuries. Novgorod masters achieved outstanding success in icon painting. Particularly remarkable are the large monumental icons, which bear the imprint of fine taste and craftsmanship. They show connections with artistic culture Byzantium 11-12 centuries.

The icon "Ustyug Annunciation" (end of the 12th century) gives an excellent idea of the search for a monumental style. Freely, but with the finest calculation, the artist outlines the closed silhouette of the figure of the Mother of God, pointing with her right hand at the infant Christ entering her bosom, and the more complex, somewhat torn silhouette of the archangel. However, this contrast does not violate the integrity. A single rhythm of smooth, rounded lines, restrained and strict coloring, built on dark yellow, blue and cherry tones - everything creates a solemn mood. The face of the Mother of God with a small graceful mouth, a straight nose and huge eyes under slightly drawn together eyebrows is full of inner concentration and hidden sadness. There is more firmness in the face of the angel, but it also expresses anxiety and deep-seated sadness. In the "Ustyug Annunciation" one can see persistent and more successful searches for psychological expressiveness than in fresco painting. The image of Christ in the icon of the Savior Not Made by Hands (late 12th century) is full of great inner strength. The look of huge eyes, directed slightly to the side, breaks the strict symmetry of the face and makes it more alive and deeply spiritualized. To some extent, this image is akin to the adamant and formidable saints of Nereditsa, but spiritual power and depth are expressed here with a different, more ennobled shade. The features of Christ are strict and graceful, the transitions from light to shadow in the face are very thin, the hair is trimmed with thin golden threads. On the reverse side of the icon is an image of angels worshiping the Calvary cross. The painting style here is freer, the composition is more dynamic, the colors are brighter.

An elevated emotional structure distinguishes the icon of the Assumption of the Mother of God (13th century); the feeling of grief is conveyed very restrainedly, the artistic image is full of great ethical content.

The “Head of the Archangel” (an icon of the late 12th century) differs markedly from the “Savior”. As in the angel from the Ustyug Annunciation, the face of the archangel is full of sadness and warmth, but these feelings are expressed with the utmost conciseness and tact: the head, adorned with a cap of chestnut hair woven with golden threads, is slightly inclined to the right shoulder, huge eyes are attentive and sad. The color of the icon is not bright, the combination of a few - brown, red, olive, green - colors is amazingly harmonious.

The variety of emotional expressiveness of Novgorod icon painting is noticeable when comparing these works with the icon "Nicholas the Wonderworker" from Moscow's Novodevichy Convent (early 13th century). This icon shows that in the ethical ideals of the Novgorodians, not only a spiritually strong ascetic, an ascetic, but also a wise man, kind to people, understanding their earthly aspirations, forgiving their sins, found a place for himself.

Naturally, the Novgorodians - travelers, brave merchants and warriors - were especially close to the image of St. George. In the form of a young knight on a white horse, he is depicted in the Church of George in Staraya Ladoga. The Novgorod letter belongs to the image of George in military armor, with a spear in his hand (icon of the 12th century). The coloring of this icon, brighter and more sonorous than in the works mentioned above, corresponds to the youth, beauty and strength of the warrior.

Neither in Byzantium nor in the West were there at that time icons similar to those of Novgorod. These magnificent works of painting with their sublime images, with their monumentality achieved with the help of a smooth, musically expressive linear rhythm and the finest combination of intense, albeit a little gloomy colors, speak of the aesthetic ideals not only of Novgorodians, but of the entire Russian culture.

Another trend in Novgorod icon painting is represented by an icon depicting John of the Ladder, George and Blasius (13th century) kept in the Russian Museum. It has much in common with the frescoes of Nereditsa. John, whom the Novgorod master calls "Evan", is as straightforward as the "fathers of the church" of Nereditsa, but less unapproachable. And this impression arises due to the fact that his image is very simplified, it does not feel that powerful pictorial molding of forms, which gives the images of Nereditsa an extraordinary significance. The simplification also affects the coloring. The dense and bright cinnabar background of the icon has nothing to do with the shimmering gold or silver background of the icons of the first group and to a large extent contributes to the impression of tangibility, concreteness of the image.

The trend in Novgorod painting represented by this icon developed successfully in the 13th and 14th centuries; a number of works came out of it, conquering with their immediacy and naive poetry. Among them stand out images on the royal doors from the village of Krivoye (13th century, Tretyakov Gallery) and the hagiographic icon of St. George (early 14th century, Russian Museum).

In the second half of the 12th c. the most powerful in Rus' was the Vladimir-Suzdal principality. Its princes, relying on merchants and artisans, combatants and small landowners, sought to limit the influence of the big boyars and fought for a single princely power.

The claims of the princes of Vladimir-Suzdal to a leading position in Rus' and their real power were one of the reasons for intensive architectural construction. It was natural to turn to the traditions of Kyiv architecture, in which the idea of a strong princely power is clearly expressed. However, in the Vladimir-Suzdal Principality, original types of churches were created, different from those in Kyiv - the central city cathedral and a more modest home church for the prince and his relatives. Vladimir-Suzdal architecture is also distinguished by the abundance of sculptural relief. Associated, perhaps, with the art of the Galicia-Volyn principality, the sculptural decoration of the Vladimir-Suzdal monuments is distinguished by its bright originality and its roots go back to the most ancient layers of folk art.

Under Prince Yuri Dolgoruky, the Church of Boris and Gleb in Kideksha (1152) and the Transfiguration Cathedral in Pereslavl-Zalessky (1152) were built.

Both churches are very simple in plan: they are single-dome structures with four pillars and three strongly protruding half-cylinders of absides. The clarity of the main volumes is especially felt in the Cathedral of the Transfiguration of the Savior, severe and strict. Despite the ease of viewing individual volumes - heavy apses, smooth, undecorated and only cut through by elongated windows of the walls of the facades and a mighty drum topped with a helmet-shaped dome, the whole temple, resembling a cube grown into the ground, is distinguished by extraordinary integrity. The impression of indissolubility separate parts enhanced by the material and the technique of its processing. The cathedral is made of squares of white stone perfectly fitted to each other, which makes it even more monolithic.

At the end of the 11th century, Ancient Rus' entered an inevitable period of development of feudal relations, expressed in political fragmentation. The unified state broke up into several independent parts, leading a fierce struggle among themselves. At the heart of the division of the “Russian land” between the Yaroslavichs lay deep reasons.

"Testament" of Yaroslav the Wise and Yaroslavichi

In 1054, Yaroslav the Wise felt the approach of death and made the famous “Testament”, dividing Rus' between his sons:

Izyaslav - Kyiv;
Svyatoslav - Chernihiv;
Vsevolod - Pereyaslavl.

Yaroslavichi for a long time peacefully ruled their lands, but in the 70s. a struggle broke out again between them, in which the grandchildren of Yaroslav the Wise already participated.

Rice. 1. Yaroslav the Wise. Reconstruction by M. M. Gerasimov.

In 1097, a congress of 6 princes took place in Lyubech, at which a decision was made: “Everyone and keep his fatherland.”

This decision officially approved political fragmentation and was supposed to end the civil strife.

Immediately after the Lubech Congress, Svyatopolk lured Vasilko Rostislavovich into a trap and blinded him.

"Ladder"

One of the reasons for the political fragmentation of Rus' in the 12-13th century was the “ladder” order of the grand ducal heritage, enshrined at the congress in Lyubech. According to this order, Kyiv was given to the eldest son of the Grand Duke, the rest of the sons received inheritances in order of seniority (also starting from larger to smaller ones).

Socio-economic causes of fragmentation

Ancient Rus' from the moment of formation consisted of several major principalities:

Kyiv;
Chernihiv;
Galician;
Volynskoe;
Vladimirskoe;
Suzdal;
Novgorod.

By the beginning of the 13th century, there were already about 30 independent principalities in Rus'.

The central cities of these principalities gradually grew, grew richer and subjugated the surrounding territories. They formed their own land nobility, boyars and warriors.

The development of feudal relations "tied" large landowners (princes and boyars) to their lands. It was more profitable for them to strengthen their own principality than to seek the throne of Kyiv.

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