Formation and development of the ancient Russian state. East Slavs

Emergence and development Old Russian state(IX - beginning of the 12th century).

The emergence of the Old Russian state is traditionally associated with the unification of the Ilmen region and the Dnieper region as a result of the campaign against Kyiv Prince of Novgorod Oleg in 882. Having killed Askold and Dir, who reigned in Kyiv, Oleg began to rule on behalf of the young son of Prince Rurik, Igor.

The formation of the state was the result of long and complex processes that took place over vast areas of the East European Plain in the second half of the 1st millennium AD.

By the 7th century East Slavic tribal unions settled in its vastness, the names and location of which are known to historians from the ancient Russian chronicle “The Tale of Bygone Years” St. Nestor(XI century). This is a clearing (along west bank Dnieper), Drevlyans (to the northwest of them), Ilmen Slovenes (along the banks of Lake Ilmen and the Volkhov River), Krivichi (in the upper reaches of the Dnieper, Volga and Western Dvina), Vyatichi (along the banks of the Oka), Northerners (along the Desna) and etc. The northern neighbors of the eastern Slavs were the Finns, the western - the Balts, and the south-eastern - the Khazars. Great importance in their early history they had trade routes, one of which connected Scandinavia and Byzantium (the route “from the Varangians to the Greeks” from Gulf of Finland along the Neva, Lake Ladoga, Volkhov, Lake Ilmen to the Dnieper and the Black Sea), and the other connected the Volga regions with the Caspian Sea and Persia.

Nestor cites the famous story about the calling of the Varangian (Scandinavian) princes Rurik, Sineus and Truvor by the Ilmen Slovenes: “Our land is great and abundant, but there is no order in it: come reign and rule over us.” Rurik accepted the offer and in 862 he reigned in Novgorod (that is why the monument “Millennium of Russia” was erected in Novgorod in 1862). Many historians of the 18th-19th centuries. were inclined to understand these events as evidence that statehood was brought to Rus' from the outside and the Eastern Slavs were unable to create their own state on their own (Norman theory). Modern researchers recognize this theory as untenable. They pay attention to the following:

Nestor's story proves that the Eastern Slavs by the middle of the 9th century. there were bodies that were the prototype of state institutions (prince, squad, meeting of tribal representatives - the future veche);

The Varangian origin of Rurik, as well as Oleg, Igor, Olga, Askold, Dir is indisputable, but the invitation of a foreigner as a ruler is important indicator maturity of prerequisites for the formation of a state. Tribal Union realizes his common interests and tries to resolve contradictions between individual tribes with the calling of a prince standing above local disagreements. The Varangian princes, surrounded by a strong and combat-ready squad, led and completed the processes leading to the formation of the state;

Large tribal super-unions, which included several tribal unions, developed among the Eastern Slavs already in the 8th-9th centuries. - around Novgorod and around Kyiv; - in the formation of the Ancient T. state important role external factors played a role: threats coming from outside (Scandinavia, Khazar Kaganate) pushed for unity;

The Varangians, having given Rus' a ruling dynasty, quickly assimilated and merged with the local Slavic population;

As for the name “Rus”, its origin continues to cause controversy. Some historians associate it with Scandinavia, others find its roots in the East Slavic environment (from the Ros tribe, who lived along the Dnieper). Other opinions are also expressed on this matter.

Kievan Rus was one of the largest and most powerful states of the Middle Ages. The formation and development of the ancient Russian state was influenced by certain geopolitical and spatial factors. Firstly, the lands on which the formation took place new country, were located at the junction of two different worlds: Muslim and Christian, sedentary and nomadic. The main features of the formation of the ancient Russian state are that during its formation, Kievan Rus acquired the features of both Western and Eastern statehood, since it was located on Secondly, the need of different tribes to unite in the face of a common enemy allowed peoples with different levels of development and different By the way, Slavic statehood begins to emerge long before the formation Kievan Rus, in the distant sixth century AD, with the unification of clan and tribal communities into one common and stronger community.

Currently, many historians and sociologists continue to debate the topic of the origins of Russian statehood. From the point of view of many of them, the reasons are:

Economic development. The joint activities of people encouraged them to search for new forms of existence. Ancient Rus' was an agricultural country. The combined efforts of peoples who previously lived separately made it possible not only to feed their populations, but also to produce goods for export. Part of the country's urban population consisted of artisans and merchants, who also conducted active trade with foreigners. Each pre-existing separate tribe could barely provide itself with decent food.

Division of labor. Before the unification, each tribe was forced to completely provide for itself. In a single state, people were gradually divided into separate castes or groups, in which each fulfilled his assigned role. Thus, farmers grew grains necessary for food and vegetable crops, merchants were engaged in trade, the squad protected civilians and the territory of the country from enemy attacks.

People's interest in, from the beginning of its existence, played the role of a mediator. Initially, the role of an arbiter in such matters belonged to the prince or warrior. The elders of the clan during the separation of the tribes were little suited for such a role and could hardly judge impartially. Resolving disputes between individual clans through military action was too burdensome. With the formation of the state, laws gradually appear that protect people in certain circumstances, punishing the guilty, arises. In addition, the reasons for the formation of the ancient Russian state lie in the desire of people for protection in the face of an external enemy. In a unified country, the role of defenders was performed by people specially trained in military affairs, which means there was a much greater chance of victory.

Also, the reasons for the formation of the ancient Russian state can be traced to the gradual stratification of communities, the formation of inequality in terms of property, and the emergence of classes. The very formation of Rus' is associated with the period of Oleg’s reign in Novgorod. The concept of the ancient Russian state is first encountered in the Tale of Bygone Years and is associated with the campaign against Kyiv in 882. The annexation of Kyiv to Novgorod became the next, but not the final stage in the unification of Russian lands. However, this event is considered to be key in the formation of a unified country.

It is possible that all the reasons for the formation of the ancient Russian state are unknown to modern researchers of history. The only very reliable source telling about the pre-Christian times of Rus' is the Tale of Bygone Years. We cannot rule out the possibility that his data is unreliable or not completely reliable.

Prerequisites formation of the state among the Eastern Slavs: the transition from a tribal community to a neighboring one, the formation of intertribal alliances, the development of trades, crafts and trade, the need for unification to repel an external threat.

The tribal reigns of the Slavs had signs of emerging statehood. Tribal principalities often united into large super-unions, revealing features of early statehood. One of these associations was union of tribes led by Kiy(known from the end of the 5th century). At the end of the VI-VII centuries. existed, according to Byzantine and Arabic sources, "Power of the Volynians" , which was an ally of Byzantium.

The Novgorod chronicle reports about the elder Gostomysl , who headed in the 9th century. Slavic unification around Novgorod. Eastern sources suggest the existence on the eve of the formation of the Old Russian state three large associations Slavic tribes: Cuiaba, Slavia and Artania. Cuyaba (or Kuyava), apparently, was located around Kyiv. Slavia occupied the territory in the area of ​​Lake Ilmen, its center was Novgorod. The location of Artania is determined differently by different researchers (Ryazan, Chernigov).

In the 18th century have developed theories of formation of the Old Russian state . According to Norman theory the state of Rus' was created by Norman (Varangian, Russian name for the Scandinavian peoples) princes who came at the invitation of the Eastern Slavs (authors G. Bayer, G. Miller, A. Shletser). Supporters anti-Norman theory believed that the determining factor in the process of formation of any state are objective internal conditions, without which it is impossible to create it by any external forces (author M.V. Lomonosov).

Norman theory

The Russian chronicler of the early 12th century, trying to explain the origin of the Old Russian state, in accordance with medieval tradition, included in the chronicle a legend about the calling of three Varangian brothers as princes Rurik, Sineus and Truvor. Many historians believe that the Varangians were Norman (Scandinavian) warriors who were hired for service and swore an oath of allegiance to the ruler. A number of historians, on the contrary, consider the Varangians to be a Russian tribe that lived on the southern coast Baltic Sea and on the island of Rügen.

According to this legend, on the eve of the formation of Kievan Rus, the northern tribes of the Slavs and their neighbors (Ilmen Slovenes, Chud, Vse) paid tribute to the Varangians, and the southern tribes (Polyans and their neighbors) were dependent on the Khazars. In 859, the Novgorodians “expelled the Varangians overseas,” which led to civil strife. Under these conditions, the Novgorodians who gathered for the council sent for the Varangian princes: “Our land is great and abundant, but there is no order (order - Author) in it. Come reign and rule over us.” Power over Novgorod and the surrounding Slavic lands passed into the hands of the Varangian princes, the eldest of whom Rurik laid, as the chronicler believed, the beginning of a princely dynasty. After the death of Rurik, another Varangian prince, Oleg(there is information that he was a relative of Rurik), who ruled in Novgorod, united Novgorod and Kyiv in 882. This is how it happened, according to the chronicler, the state Rus(called modern historians also Kievan Rus).

The legendary chronicle story about the calling of the Varangians served as the basis for the emergence of the so-called Norman theory of the emergence of the Old Russian state. It was first formulated German scientists G.F. Miller and G.Z. Bayer, invited to work in Russia in the 18th century. M.V. Lomonosov was an ardent opponent of this theory.

The very fact of the presence of the Varangian squads, by which, as a rule, the Scandinavians are understood, in the service of the Slavic princes, their participation in the life of Rus' is beyond doubt, as are the constant mutual ties between the Scandinavians and Russia. However, there are no traces of any noticeable influence of the Varangians on the economic and socio-political institutions of the Slavs, as well as on their language and culture. In the Scandinavian sagas, Rus' is a country of untold riches, and service to Russian princes is the surest way to gain fame and power. Archaeologists note that the number of Varangians in Rus' was small. No data has been found on the colonization of Rus' by the Varangians. The version about the foreign origin of this or that dynasty is typical of antiquity and the Middle Ages. It is enough to recall the stories about the calling of the Anglo-Saxons by the Britons and the creation of the English state, about the founding of Rome by the brothers Romulus and Remus, etc.

Other theories ( Slavic and centrist)

IN modern era quite the scientific inconsistency of the Norman theory has been proven, explaining the emergence of the Old Russian state as a result of foreign initiative. However, its political meaning is still dangerous today. The “Normanists” proceed from the position of the supposedly primordial backwardness of the Russian people, who, in their opinion, are incapable of independent historical creativity. It is possible, as they believe, only under foreign leadership and according to foreign models.

Historians have convincing evidence that there is every reason to assert: the Eastern Slavs had strong traditions of statehood long before the calling of the Varangians. State institutions arise as a result of the development of society. The actions of individual major individuals, conquests or other external circumstances determine the specific manifestations of this process. Consequently, the fact of the calling of the Varangians, if it really took place, speaks not so much about the emergence of Russian statehood as about the origin of the princely dynasty. If Rurik was real historical figure, then his calling to Rus' should be considered as a response to the real need for princely power in Russian society of that time. In historical literature the question of Rurik’s place in our history remains controversial . Some historians share the opinion that the Russian dynasty is of Scandinavian origin, like the name “Rus” itself (“Russians” were the Finns’ name for the inhabitants of Northern Sweden). Their opponents are of the opinion that the legend about the calling of the Varangians is the fruit of tendentious writing, a later insertion caused by political reasons. There is also a point of view that the Varangians were Slavs, descended either from south coast Baltic (Rügen Island), or from the Neman River area. It should be noted that the term “Rus” is repeatedly found in relation to various associations both in the north and in the south of the East Slavic world.

State formation Rus or, as it is called after the capital, Kievan Rus) - the natural completion of a long process of decomposition of the primitive communal system among one and a half dozen Slavic tribal unions that lived on the way “from the Varangians to the Greeks.” The established state was at the very beginning of its journey: primitive communal traditions retained their place in all spheres of life of East Slavic society for a long time.

Centers of the Old Russian state

Rus' was based on two centers: southern folded around Kyiv(founders brothers Kiy, Shchek, Khoriv and sister Lybid) in the middle of the 9th century. The northern center formed around Novgorod.

The first prince of Novgorod was Rurik(862-879) with brothers Sineus and Truvor. From 879-912 rules Oleg, who united Novgorod and Kyiv in 882 and created a single state of Rus'. Oleg carried out campaigns against Byzantium (907, 911), concluded an agreement in 911 with the Byzantine emperor Leo VI on the right to duty-free trade.

In 912, power inherits Igor(son of Rurik). He repelled the invasion of the Pechenegs, made campaigns against Byzantium: in 941 he was defeated and in 944 he concluded the first written agreement with the Byzantine emperor Roman I Lacapin. In 945, as a result of an uprising of the Drevlyan tribe, Igor was killed while trying to re-assemble polyudye - an annual tour of the subject lands by the prince and his squad to collect tribute.

Prerequisites and reasons for the emergence of the Old Russian state

The development of production and social differentiation led to the need to regulate relations between different groups of the population;

Complication of socio-political organization: tribal unions, strengthening of princely power, special military organization (detachment);

External factor: wars, danger posed by nomads.

The emergence of the Old Russian state is traditionally associated with the unification of the Ilmen region and the Dnieper region as a result of the campaign against Kyiv by the Novgorod prince Oleg in 882. Having killed Askold and Dir, who reigned in Kyiv, Oleg began to rule on behalf of the young son of Prince Rurik, Igor.

The formation of the state was the result of long and complex processes that took place over vast areas of the East European Plain in the second half of the 1st millennium AD.

Nestor cites the famous story about the calling of the Varangian (Scandinavian) princes Rurik, Sineus and Truvor by the Ilmen Slovenes: “Our land is great and abundant, but there is no order in it: come reign and rule over us.” Rurik accepted the offer and in 862 he reigned in Novgorod (that is why the monument “Millennium of Russia” was erected in Novgorod in 1862). Many historians of the 18th-19th centuries. were inclined to understand these events as evidence that statehood was brought to Rus' from the outside and the Eastern Slavs were unable to create their own state on their own (Norman theory). Modern researchers recognize this theory as untenable. They pay attention to the following:

Nestor's story proves that the Eastern Slavs by the middle of the 9th century. there were bodies that were the prototype of state institutions (prince, squad, meeting of tribal representatives - the future veche);

The Varangian origin of Rurik, as well as Oleg, Igor, Olga, Askold, Dir is indisputable, but the invitation of a foreigner as a ruler is an important indicator of the maturity of the prerequisites for the formation of a state. The tribal union is aware of its common interests and tries to resolve contradictions between individual tribes with the calling of a prince standing above local differences. The Varangian princes, surrounded by a strong and combat-ready squad, led and completed the processes leading to the formation of the state;

Large tribal super-unions, which included several tribal unions, developed among the Eastern Slavs already in the 8th-9th centuries. - around Novgorod and around Kyiv; - external factors played an important role in the formation of the Old Russian state: threats coming from outside (Scandinavia, Khazar Kaganate) pushed for unity;

The Varangians, having given Rus' a ruling dynasty, quickly assimilated and merged with the local Slavic population;

At the end of the 9th - beginning of the 11th century. The Old Russian state was going through a period of formation. The formation of its territory and composition was actively underway. Oleg (882-912) subjugated the tribes of the Drevlyans, Northerners and Radimichi to Kyiv, Igor (912-945) successfully fought with the streets, Svyatoslav (964-972) - with the Vyatichi. During the reign of Prince Vladimir (980-1015), the Volynians and Croats were subjugated, and power over the Radimichi and Vyatichi was confirmed. In addition to the East Slavic tribes, the Old Russian state included Finno-Ugric peoples (Chud, Merya, Muroma, etc.). The degree of independence of the tribes from the Kyiv princes was quite high.

The important functions of the Old Russian state, which it began to perform from the moment of its inception, were also protecting the territory from military raids(in the 9th - early 11th centuries these were mainly raids of the Khazars and Pechenegs) and the implementation of active foreign policy(campaigns against Byzantium in 907, 911, 944, 970, Russian-Byzantine treaties in 911 and 944, the defeat of the Khazar Khaganate in 964-965, etc.).

The period of formation of the Old Russian state ended with the reign of Prince Vladimir I the Holy, or Vladimir the Red Sun. Under him, Christianity was adopted from Byzantium, a system of defensive fortresses was created on the southern borders of Rus', and the so-called ladder system of transfer of power was finally formed. The order of succession was determined by the principle of seniority in the princely family. Vladimir, having taken the throne of Kiev, placed his eldest sons in the largest Russian cities. The most important reign after Kyiv - Novgorod - was transferred to his eldest son. In the event of the death of the eldest son, his place was to be taken by the next in seniority, all other princes were moved to more important thrones. During the life of the Kyiv prince, this system worked flawlessly. After his death, as a rule, there followed a more or less long period of struggle by his sons for the reign of Kiev.

The heyday of the Old Russian state occurred during the reign of Yaroslav the Wise (1019-1054) and his sons. It includes the oldest part of the Russian Truth - the first monument that has come down to us written law (“Russian Law”, information about which dates back to Oleg’s reign, has not been preserved either in the original or in the lists). Russian Truth regulated relations in the princely economy - the patrimony. Its analysis allows historians to talk about the existing system of government: the Kiev prince, like the local princes, is surrounded by a squad, the top of which are called boyars and with whom he consults on the most important issues (the Duma, the permanent council under the prince). From among the warriors, mayors are appointed to manage cities, governors, tributaries (collectors of land taxes), mytniki (collectors of trade duties), tiuns (administrators of princely estates), etc. Russian Pravda contains valuable information about ancient Russian society. It was based on the free rural and urban population (people). There were slaves (servants, serfs), farmers dependent on the prince (zakup, ryadovichi, smerds - historians do not have a common opinion about the situation of the latter).

Yaroslav the Wise pursued an energetic dynastic policy, tying his sons and daughters by marriage with ruling families Hungary, Poland, France, Germany, etc.